Polybius

born c. 200 bc, Megalopolis, Arcadia, Greece
died c. 118

Greek statesman and historian who wrote of the rise of Rome to world prominence.

Early life
Polybius was the son of Lycortas, a distinguished Achaean statesman, and he received the upbringing considered appropriate for a son of rich landowners. His youthful biography of Philopoemen reflected his admiration for that great Achaean leader, and an interest in military matters found expression in his lost book, Tactics. He enjoyed riding and hunting, but his knowledge of literature was rather specialized (apart from the historians) and his acquaintance with philosophy superficial.

Before 170/169, when he was hipparch (cavalry commander) in the Achaean Confederation, almost nothing is known of his career. But he then became involved in critical events. Encumbered by their war with Perseus of Macedonia, the Romans were watching for disloyalty in the Greek states. Although Polybius declared for open support of Rome and was sent as an envoy to the consul Quintus Marcius Philippus, Achaean help was rejected. After Perseus’ defeat at Pydna in 168, Polybius was one of 1,000 eminent Achaeans who were deported to Rome and detained in Italy without trial.

Residence in Rome
At Rome, Polybius had the good fortune to attract the friendship of the great Roman general Scipio Aemilianus; he became Scipio’s mentor and through his family’s influence was allowed to remain in Rome. It is probable that Polybius accompanied Scipio to Spain in 151, went with him to Africa (where he saw the Numidian king Masinissa), and crossed the Alps in Hannibal’s footsteps on his way back to Italy. Shortly afterward, when his political detention had ended, Polybius joined Scipio at Carthage and was present at its siege and destruction in 146; and it is likely that he then undertook a voyage of exploration in the Atlantic, which is related in Pliny the Elder’s Natural History.

Meanwhile, hostilities had broken out between Achaea and Rome, and Polybius was in Corinth shortly after its destruction, in 146. He devoted himself to securing as favourable a settlement as possible for his countrymen and to reestablishing order; and, as the geographer Pausanias states, Achaean gratitude found expression in the erection of statues in his honour at Tegea, Pallantium, Mantineia, Lycosura—where the inscription declared that “Greece would never have come to grief, had she obeyed Polybius in all things, and having come to grief, she found succour through him alone”—and Megalopolis, where it was recorded that “he had roamed over all the earth and sea, had been the ally of the Romans, and had quenched their wrath against Greece.”

Of Polybius’ life after 146 little is known. At some date he visited Alexandria and Sardis. He is known to have discussed political problems with Scipio and Panaetius of Rhodes. He wrote a history of the Numantine War, evidently after 133 bc, and also a treatise on the habitability of the equatorial region; but when he composed the latter is unknown.

Polybius’ history of Rome
The Histories on which his reputation rests consisted of 40 books, the last being indexes. Books I–V are extant. For the rest there are various excerpts, including those contained in the collection of passages from Greek historians assembled in the 10th century and rediscovered and published by various editors from the 16th to the 19th century.

Polybius’ original purpose was to narrate the history of the 53 years (220–168 bc)—from Hannibal’s Spanish campaign to the Battle of Pydna—during which Rome had made itself master of the world. Books I–II form an introduction covering Roman history from the crossing into Sicily against the Carthaginians in 264 and including events in various other parts of the world (especially Achaea) between 264 and 220. In Book III, Polybius sketches a modified plan, proposing to add an account of how the Romans exercised their supremacy and to extend coverage to the destruction of Carthage, in 146.

The events of 168–146 were related in Books XXX–XXXIX. Polybius probably conceived his revision after 146, having by this date completed his narrative down to the end of the Second Punic War. At least Books I–VI seem to have been published by about 150; there is no information as to when the rest of the work, including the revised plan in Book III, appeared.

Conception of history
“All historians,” according to Polybius,

have insisted that the soundest education and training for political activity is the study of history, and that the surest and indeed the only way to learn how to bear bravely the vicissitudes of fortune is to recall the disasters of others.

Practical experience and fortitude in facing calamity are the rewards of studying history and are stressed repeatedly throughout the work. History is essentially didactic. Pleasure is not to be wholly excluded, but the scale comes down sharply on the side of profit. To be really profitable, history must deal with political and military matters; and this is pragmatiké historia, in contrast to other sorts of history (IX, 1–2)—genealogies and mythical stories, appealing to the casual reader, and accounts of colonies, foundations of cities, and ties of kindred, which attract the man with antiquarian interests. Its nature is austere, though it may include contemporary developments in art and science. He stands in contrast to the sensationalism of many of his predecessors, who confuse history with tragedy.

In Book II, in which he attacks the Greek historian Phylarchus for practices that might be called unprofessional today, Polybius states:

A historian should not try to astonish his readers by sensationalism, nor, like the tragic poets, seek after men’s probable utterances and enumerate all the possible consequences of the events under consideration, but simply record what really happened and was said, however commonplace. For the object of history is the very opposite of that of tragedy. The tragic writer seeks by the most plausible language to thrill and charm the audience temporarily; the historian by real facts and real speeches seeks to instruct and convince serious students for all time. There it is the probable that counts, even though it be false, the object being to beguile the spectator; here it is the truth, the object being to benefit the student.

This attack on Phylarchus is not isolated. Similar faults are castigated in other historians judged guilty of sensationalism (cf. II, 16, 13–15; III, 48, 8; VII, 7, 1–2; XV, 34, 1–36). Nor are these their only weaknesses. Many historians are prone to exaggeration—and that for a special reason. As writers of monographs whose subjects are simple and monotonous, they are driven “to magnify small matters, to touch up and elaborate brief statements and to transform incidents of no importance into momentous events and actions” (XXIX, 12, 3). In contrast to such practices, Polybius stresses the universal character of his own theme, which is to narrate “how and thanks to what kind of constitution the Romans in under 53 years have subjected nearly the whole inhabited world to their sole government—a thing unique in history” (I, 1, 5).

Polybius believed that he had a particular reason for adopting a comprehensive view of history, apart from his own predilection for such a view. He wrote:

Hitherto the affairs of the world had been as it were dispersed . . .; since this date [220 bc] history has formed an organic whole, and the affairs of Italy and Africa have been interlinked with those of Greece and Asia, all tending towards one end (I, 3, 3–4).

Indeed, only universal history is capable of adequately treating Rome’s rise to world power—the historian’s synoptic view matches the organic character of history itself:

What gives my work its peculiar quality, and is nowadays most remarkable, is this. Tyche [Fortune] having guided almost all the world’s affairs in one direction and having inclined them to one and the same goal, so the historian must bring under one conspectus for his readers the operations by which she has accomplished her general purpose. For it was chiefly this consideration, coupled with the fact that none of my contemporaries has attempted a general history, which incited and encouraged me to undertake my task (I, 4, 1–2).

The role here allotted to Fortune is somewhat unusual. For clearly the value of history as a source of practical lessons is diminished if cause and effect are at the mercy of an incalculable and capricious power. Usually, although Polybius uses Fortune to cover a variety of phenomena, ranging from pure chance to something very like a purposeful providence, much of the apparent inconsistency springs from his use of purely verbal elaboration or the careless adoption of current Hellenistic terminology, which habitually made Fortune a goddess. Here, however, Fortune seems to be a real directive power, which raised Rome to world dominion—because Rome deserved it. Normally, Polybius lays great emphasis on causality, and his distinction (III, 6) between the causes of an event (aitiai) and its immediate origins (archai) is useful up to a point, though it is more mechanical than that of the great Greek historian Thucydides and allows nothing for the dialectical character of real historical situations.

An important place in Polybius’ work is occupied by his study of the Roman constitution and army and the early history of the city in Book VI. His analysis of the mixed constitution, which had enabled Rome to avoid the cycle of change and deterioration to which simple constitutional forms were liable, is full of problems, but it has exercised widespread influence, from Cicero’s De republica down to Machiavelli and Montesquieu.

Sources of information
Polybius defines the historian’s task as the study and collation of documents, acquaintance with relevant geographical features, and, finally, political experience (XII, 25e); of these the last two are the most essential. And he practiced what he preached, for he possessed good political and military experience and had traveled widely throughout the Mediterranean and beyond. Nor did he neglect written sources; indeed, for his introductory books, covering the period from 264 to 220, they were essential. For the main part of his history, from 220 onward, he consulted many writers, Greek and Roman, but, following precedent, he rarely names them.

He had access to private sources; for example, Publius Cornelius Scipio’s letter to Philip V of Macedonia describing the capture in Spain, in 209 bc, of New Carthage (X, 9, 3), and a letter of Scipio Nasica to some Hellenistic king about the campaigns of the Third Macedonian War (XXIX, 14, 3). He almost certainly consulted the Achaean record office and must have drawn on Roman records for such material as the treaty between Carthage and Philip V (VII, 9). It has not been proved that he had access to the Rhodian records. His detailed figures for Hannibal’s troop formations in Italy came from an inscription left by Hannibal, which he found in the Temple of Juno on the Lacinian promontory.

Polybius regarded oral sources as his most important, and the questioning of witnesses as the most vital part of a historian’s task; indeed, this is one reason why he chose to begin his main history at the year 220. Anything else would be “hearsay at one remove,” a safe foundation for neither judgments nor statements.

Style and qualities as a historian
Writing in the 1st century bc, Dionysius of Halicarnassus reckons Polybius among those who “have left behind them compositions which no one endures to read to the end”; that his successors shared this view of Polybius’ style is confirmed by the failure of his works to survive except in an incomplete form. The infelicity of Polybius’ Greek (which frequently reproduces the conventional phrases of the Hellenistic chancelleries familiar from contemporary inscriptions) lies in its awkward use of long and cumbersome circumlocutions, vague abstract nouns, and pedantic repetitions. To the scholar his style is, however, no great obstacle; and, though in his anxiety to improve his reader he moralizes and belabours the obvious, the perennial interest and importance of his theme will always ensure him a following among those who can enjoy a historian who is accurate, serious, and sensible, who understands the events of which he writes, and, above all, who asks the right questions.

Frank W. Walbank