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The Chronicle
of Impressionism
(by Bernard Denvir)
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The Impressionists' World
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'Les Japonais'
But exotic artefacts had begun to appear in Paris much
earlier. Monet claimed that he bought his first Japanese
prints from ships in Le Havre in 1856; and by the 1860s
Baudelaire, Whistler, Bracquemond, Zola and Manet were
patronizing shops such as La Porte Chinoise and L'Empire
Chinoise, which were selling oriental bric-a-brac, including
contemporary prints. At the
Universal Exhibition of 1867 the vogue for things Oriental
was given added impetus by the participation of Japan, which
had been opened up to international commerce thirteen years
earlier by the American warships of Commodore Perry. The
impact of the prints of Hokusai and Hiroshige on Manet was
immediately apparent - both in his graphic work and in
paintings such as Olympia, which
possessed geisha-like undertones. In fact, the influence of
Japanese art soon permeated the whole movement to such an
extent that, before they were known as the Impressionists,
the group of painters working in the Batignolles area and
acknowledging the leadership of Manet were sometimes
referred to as 'les Japonais'.
Official Patronage
The Impressionists lived in a city remarkable for the wealth
and accessibility of its art, and this was constantly being
added to. In 1879, for example, the creation of the Musee
des Monuments Francais gathered together in one place the
treasures of medieval France, and in 1890 the house of the
Duchesse de Galliera was converted into the Musee des Arts
Decoratifs.
Nor was contemporary art neglected. When in 1818 the famous
series of paintings of Marie de Medicis by Rubens in the
Luxembourg Palace was moved to the Louvre, it was decided
that the Luxembourg should be devoted to contemporary French
paintings acquired by the Government, mostly from the annual
Salon — then if they became famous enough, they would be
transferred from the Luxembourg to the Louvre five years
after the artist's death. This honour was highly regarded by
some though others, such as Degas, were contemptuous of it,
and it could provoke controversy. When part of the
Caillebotte bequest was finally accepted by the State, a
great deal of hostility was aroused among the more
conservative elements of the art world, who viewed official
recognition of the Impressionists as the final surrender to
artistic anarchy. There was a similar scandal when in 1907,
thanks to Monet exerting pressure on Clemenceau, Manet's
Olympia was transferred from the Luxembourg to the Louvre,
where it was hung next to Ingres' Grande Odalisque.
The first work in any way connected with Impressionism to be
acquired by the State was Eva Gonzales' The Little Soldier,
painted in 1870, which was purchased at the Salon of that
year largely because her father had friends in high places.
But the fact that a painting was bought by the State did not
necessarily mean it would be hung in the Luxembourg - and
after its official acquisition The Little Soldier was almost
immediately consigned to the mairie of Villeneuve-sur-Lot,
where it languished in a cellar until it was rescued from
obscurity in 1960.
Official patronage was often wasted on mediocre academic
paintings and until well into the twentieth century the
Impressionists received precious little of it, though it did
exist on a generous enough scale. In 1885 it was estimated
that the value of the works of art owned by the
Municipality- of Paris was more than 12,000,000 francs,
while those belonging to churches and other institutions
were worth a further 8,000,000 francs.
Apprenticeship for Art
The glory of Paris was of course the Louvre, and echoes of
its masterpieces reverberate throughout the works of the
Impressionists, who found it a marvellous source of learning
and inspiration. As Renoir observed, 'It is in the museum
that one must learn to paint. One must make the paintings of
one's own time, but it is there in the museum that one
develops the taste for painting, which nature alone cannot
provide.' Permission to copy works in the museum's galleries
was relatively easy to obtain. Applicants had to have a card
signed by some reliable person, preferably connected with
the art establishment. Manet — who was to be one of the most
assiduous frequenters of the Louvre, copying works by
Delacroix, Titian, Tintoretto and Velazquez — was sponsored
by his teacher, the academician Thomas Couture. Renoir's
first card, issued in January' 1860, was signed by Abel
Terral, a picture restorer in the Musee de Versailles; and
the following year he received permission to work in the
Print Department of the Bibliotheque Imperiale on the
strength of a recommendation from his teacher, Charles
Gleyre. Degas had received permission to copy works in the
Louvre seven years earlier, on the grounds that he was a
pupil at the Lycee Louis le Grand and had taken the degree
of Bachelor of Letters. He was to continue working in the
museum for the next thirty years, copying works by painters
such as Delacroix, Giorgione, Holbein, Mantegna, Poussin and
Sebastiano del Piombo.
There were many ways of becoming an artist in Paris, but all
of them involved working in the Louvre, usually under the
tuition of an established artist to whose atelier, or
studio, one became in effect apprenticed a relationship
basically not very different from the master-apprentice
relationship that had operated since the Middle Ages. The
stages preliminary to this could be various, as is amply
illustrated by the diversity of Renoir's early career. After
attending a Christian Brothers' school, where he
was taught the rudiments of drawing, at the age of 13 he was
apprenticed to a firm of porcelain painters, Levy Freres et
Compagnie, whose workshops were near the Louvre. At the same
time, he took drawing lessons from the sculptor Callouette,
who was Director of the Ecole Gratuite de Dessin in the 3rd
arrondissement. After serving his apprenticeship as a
porcelain painter, he worked for a M. Gilbert, who described
himself as a manufacturer of'blinds of all sorts', including
'monumental and artistic blinds', blinds for steamboats, and
'perfect imitation stained glass' for churches. Then in 1860
he enrolled as a student of Charles Gleyrc.
The Atelier System
Gleyre's studio was one of many run by well-known painters,
and in the course of his teaching career, which began when
he took over the studio of Paul Delaroche in 1843, he taught
some six hundred pupils, including Bazille, Monet, Renoir,
Sisley and Whistler. Considered something of an eccentric,
he emphasized the importance of originality. Indeed Bazille
commented that, thanks to Gleyre's teaching, 'I shall at
least be able to boast that I have not copied anybody.'
Students drew and painted from life (usually a male model
one week, female the next;, and the model would be posed by
the leading student, known as the massier, who was
responsible for the finances and management of the studio
too. In addition, the students had to copy drawings,
engravings and paintings by Old Masters, either directly in
the Louvre or from reproductions. There were normally about
thirty students in Gleyre's studio, but the fees were very
low (only 10 francs a month), which may explain why in 1864
Gleyre found himself in serious financial difficulties and
had to close the studio.
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DIVERGENT
DESTINIES
1887-1899
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1887
Exotic Infliences
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Durand-Ruel's gallery on Fifth Abenue, New York
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Other
Events
-James Ensor paints "The Entrance of Christ
into Brussels"
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A number of the younger generation of
artists begin to widen their horizons, many looking to Japanese art,
which is becoming increasingly popular through exhibitions held in
Paris. Gauguin embarks upon a pilgrimage in search of the exotic,
travelling as far as the Caribbean.
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TOULOUSE-LAUTREC
Portrait of Vincent van Gogh
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SEURAT
Le Pont de Courbevoie
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RENOIR
The Bathers
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1888
Durand-Ruel Opens in
New York
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Durand-Ruel's gallery on Fifth Abenue, New York
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Other
Events
-Serusier,
Denis,
Bonnard and
Ranson /founders of the Nabis group/ begin to work together
-Rodin completes "The Burghers of Calais"
-Adolfo Venturi launches "Archivio Storico dell'Arte"
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The growing vogue for Impressionist,
painting in America, a country without the prejudices of the French
academic tradition, gives Durand-Ruel the courage to open a gallery
in New York. Cassatt helps foster the popularity of Impressionism in
the USA by nurturing the enthusiasm of American friends such as
Henry and Louisine Havemeyer.
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CAILLEBOTTE
Sailing Boats at Argenteuil
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The exterior of Durand-Ruel's
gallery on Fifth Avenue,
New York.
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VAN GOGH
Fishing Boats on the Beach |
MORISOT
The Little Girl from Nice |
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1889
Smaller Groupings
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Other
Events
-Albert Aurier launches "Le Moderniste illustre"
-Sickert becomes art critic of "New York Herald"
-Vuillard and
Ranson join the Nabis
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Clusters of Impressionist artists
exhibit along with non-Impressionists: Pissarro and Bracquemond with
Redon; Monet with Rodin. Works by Cezanne, Manet, Monet and Pissarro are
shown at the Centennial Exhibition of French Art, but Degas and Renoir
stand aloof.
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RENOIR
The Washer-Women |
GAUGUIN
The Schuffnecker Family |
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1890
"Olympia"
Accepted by the State
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Vincent Van Gogh dies /1853-1890/
Vincent van
Gogh
(b Zundert, 30 March 1853; d Auvers-sur-Oise, 29
July 1890).
Dutch painter. His life and work are legendary in
the history of 19th- and 20th-century art. In the popular view,
van Gogh has become the prototype of the misunderstood,
tormented artist, who sold only one work in his lifetime—but
whose Irises (sold New York, Sotheby’s, 11 Nov 1987)
achieved a record auction sale price of £49 million. Romantic
clichés suggest that van Gogh paid with insanity for his genius,
which was understood only by his supportive brother Theo
(1857–91). Van Gogh was active as an artist for only ten years,
during which time he produced some 1000 watercolours, drawings
and sketches and about 1250 paintings ranging from a dark,
Realist style to an intense, expressionistic one. Almost more
than on his oeuvre, his fame has been based on the extensive,
diary-like correspondence he maintained, in particular with his
brother.
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A card from Theo van Gogh announcing Vincent's death on July 29th, 1890
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Other
Events
-Odilon Redon
illustrates Baudelaire's "Les Fleurs du mal"
-Musee des Arts Decoratifs opens in Paris
-First exhibition of Societe Nationale des Beaux-Arts
-"La gravure Japonaise" exhibition at Ecole des Beaux-Arts
-"The London Impressionists" launch "The Whirlwind"
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Monet's campaign to buy 'Olympia' culminates in the painting being
offered to the State. His motives are threefold: to aid Manet's widow,
to win official recognition for Impressionism, and to establish his own
position as the leader of the movement.
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VAN GOGH
The Church at Auvers.
 Cartoon from the magazine
La Vie parisienne
entitled La Belle Olympia au Lowre,
February 22nd, 1890
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SIGNAC
Portrait of Felix Feneon in Front of an Enamel
of a Rhythmic Background of Measures and
Angles,
Shades and Colours
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PISSARRO
Charing Cross Bridge,
London
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MONET OFFERS 'OLYMPIA' TO THE NATION
Having accumulated 19,415 francs for the purchase of Manet's Olympia for
the nation, on February 7th Monet wrote a letter to Armand Fallieres,
the Minister of Fine Arts, that reveals the extent to which he was using
a basically philanthropic gesture, intended to aid Manet's widow, in
order to boost Impressionism and, indirectly, his own standing in the
movement.
Monet was clearly apprehensive that the State would accept Olympia and
then relegate it to some obscure provincial museum. He therefore not
only had the letter published in Le Figaro but also returned the
agreement to the Minister when he discovered that a clause placing the
picture in the Luxembourg had been omitted. Eventually Olympia was hung
in the Luxembourg where it remained for seventeen years, before being
moved to the Louvre in 1907.
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Monsieur le Ministre,
In the name of the group of subscribers below, I have the
honour of offering the State 'Olympia' by Edouard Manet.
We come to you as representatives and spokespersons of a
large number of artists, writers and art lovers who have
recognized for a long time now how considerable a place this
painter, prematurely taken from his art and his country,
should occupy in the history of this century. The
discussions that swirled around Manet's paintings and the
hostilities that they provoked have now subsided. The
struggle will go on against those people who are less
convinced than we of the importance of Manet's osuvre and
his definitive triumph. However, we need only recall figures
once decried and rejected such as Delacroix, Corot, Courbet
and Millet, to cite only a few names who suffered anonymity
at the beginning of their careers only to enjoy
incontestable posthumous fame, figures who are today
celebrities.
But the vast majority of those people who concern themselves
with French painting believe that Edouard Manet's role was
effective and decisive. Not only did he play a large part
individually; he was the representative of a great and rich
evolution as well.
It seems to us inconceivable that such a work as the
'Olympia' should not have its place in our national
collections; that the master is not represented where his
disciples already reside. In addition, we have been
concerned about the incessant movement of the market, the
extraordinary purchase of works from us by the Americans,
the easily predicted departure for another continent of so
many works of art that are the joy and glory of France. We
have wanted to retain one of Edouard Manet's most
characteristic canvases, one in which he appeared victorious
in the fight, master of his vision and of his craft.
It is the 'Olympia' that we put back in your hands, Monsieur
le Ministre. Our desire to see it take its place in the
Louvre, in its time, among the productions of the French
school. If regulations bar its immediate entry, if it is
objected, despite the precedent of Courbet, that a period of
ten years has not elapsed since Manet's death, then we
believe the Musee du Luxembourg is perfectly appropriate to
receive the 'Olympia' and keep it until the appointed time.
We trust that you will want to give your approval to the
work with which we are associated, with the satisfaction of
having accomplished what is simply an act of justice.
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1891
Success of Monet's
"Haystacks"
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Seurat Georges dies
/1859-1891/
Georges Seurat(b Paris, 2 Dec 1859; d Paris, 29 March
1891).
French painter and draughtsman. In his short
career as a mature artist (c. 1882–91), he
produced highly sophisticated drawings and invented the
Divisionist technique of painting known as POINTILLISM,
which was taken up by many of his contemporaries
associated with Neo-Impressionism. His application of
scientific principles to painting and his stress on the
surface quality of his work have had lasting effects on
20th-century art.
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Other
Events
-Gauguin arrives in Tahiti
-The Natansons launch "La Revue blanche"
-"Natura ed Arte" launched in Milan
-Jongkind, Meissonier and Theo van Gogh die
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Monet exhibits fifteen paintings from
his 'Haystacks' series at Durand-Ruel's gallery in Paris and the
exhibition meets with astonishing success. Within three days of opening
all have been sold, but even this triumph does not stop the artist from
selling his work privately.
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SEURAT
The Circus |
MONET
Poplars on the Epte |
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1892
Monet's Series Paintings
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Other
Events
-Lord
Leighton paints "The Garden of the Hesperides"
-First Rose-Croix exhibition held in Paris
-Munich Secession founded
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While the 'Poplars' paintings are
being exhibited at Durand-Ruel's Paris gallery, Monet is hard at work on
his 'Rouen Cathedral' series, which - canvas by canvas - shows the
building's fagade under different effects of light and atmosphere.
Meanwhile, the dealer Ambroise Vollard rapidly develops his relationship
with the Impressionist artists.
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CAILLEBOTTE
Boats on the Seine at Argenteuil
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PISSARRO
Kew, the Path to the Main Conservatory
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RENOIR
Girls at the Piano |
TOULOUSE-LAUTREC
La Goulue Entering the Moulin Rouge |
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1893
Degas' Painting Shocks London
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Other
Events
-Munch paints "The Scream"
-Les Vingt dissolved; replaced by La
Libre Esthetique
-Art Nouveau style emerges in Europe
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Degas'
"The
Absinthe Drinker" causes a furore when
exhibited at the Grafton Galleries in London and is derided for the
'ugly', 'depraved' and 'boozy' appearance of the figures depicted. In
France, the Impressionists were drifting apart - physically as well as
temperamentally. Sisley had forsworn Paris altogether; Renoir was
spending more time in the south; Cezanne had settled permanently in
Aix-en-Provence; and Monet's heart was in Giverny, although he visited
Paris from time to time.
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TOULOUSE-LAUTREC
Portrait of Madame de Gortzikoff
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RENOIR
Bather Arranging her Hair |
THE IMPRESSIONIST NUDE
Renoir once said: 'The simplest subjects arc eternal. A nude -woman
getting out of the briny deep or out of bed, whether she is called Venus
or Nini, one can invent nothing better.' During the last two decades of
his life a constant stream of nudes poured from his brush - making him
one of the essential links in a tradition encompassing Praxitiles,
Giorgione, Rubens and Ingres. Apart from early exercises in the genre,
such as his Bather with a Griffon (1870), Renoir paid little
attention to the nude until the 1880s, partly because the philosophy of
Impressionism did not lend itself easily to such 'academic' subjects
(being more concerned with contemporary life, which afforded few
occasions for undressing in public) and partly because the Impressionist
technique tended to lack the precision of outline that such subjects
demanded. But Renoir was also deeply ambivalent towards women,and once
claimed that he painted women as he would carrots. Moreover, since the
Renaissance the nude had been an essential part of an artist's
education, and it is significant that those Impressionists who painted
nudes - Bazille, Degas, Manet, Renoir and to a lesser extent Cezanne -
were basically traditionalists. Nor was it a coincidence that both of
the paintings which effectively heralded the advent of Impressionism,
Manet's Dejeuner sur l'herbe and Olympia, featured nudes
who could be prostitutes, and both were painted in a traditional manner
- a formula that allowed the artist to present the 'reality of modern
life' under the guise of classical expression.
Degas was particularly aware of the possibilities offered by this
formula. Some of his early nude drawings are superb examples of
straightforward academic studies. By the 1880s, however, he was
exploring what was to become his most characteristic approach to the
nude — images of women bathing or washing themselves, far removed from
idealized poses or mythological , ^ settings. They were, as the critics
put it, 'keyhole pictures' that stripped women of their mystery, showing
them as unidealized creatures engaged in mundane activities.
Degas was a lifelong bachelor and it has been suggested that he was
impotent — which would partly explain the character of his most
extensive excursion into the nude, the fifty monotypes of brothel scenes
produced between 1876 and 1877. The images that pervade these works are
characterized by an unflattering portrayal of women's bodies and faces
and, in some pictures, the frank depiction of pubic areas. Nevertheless,
they are a remarkable expression of a conception of the nude that was
later to attract Toulouse-Lautrec, and they aroused the admiration of
Picasso, who bought four of them in 1958.
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MORISOT
Girl with a Greyhound
(Julie Manet)
Included in Morisot's retrospective exhibtion in March, this portrait of
her daughter and greyhound
Laertes : a present from Mallarmci was
described by Julie Manet in her diary:
'It shows me in the rue Weber
drawing room, in front of a Japanese print,
leaning slightly towards Laertes, in front of me.'
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1894
The Caillebotte Bequest
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Caillebotte Gustave dies /1848-1894/
Gustave
Caillebotte(b Paris, 18 Aug 1848; d Gennevilliers,
nr Paris, 21 Feb 1894).
French painter and collector. Caillebotte’s parents, of Norman descent, were
wealthy members of the Parisian upper middle class, and
his paintings often evoke his family background. After
studying classics at the Lycée Louis Le Grand, he
obtained a law degree in 1870, and during the
Franco–Prussian War he was drafted into the Seine Garde
Mobile (1870–71). He joined Léon Bonnat’s studio in 1872
and passed the entrance examination for the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts on 18 March 1873. The records of the Ecole
make no mention of his work there, and his attendance
seems to have been short-lived. He was very soon
attracted by the innovative experiments, against
academic teaching, of the young rebels who were to
become known as the Impressionists. In 1874 Edgar Degas,
whom Caillebotte had met at the house of their mutual
friend Giuseppe de Nittis, asked him to take part in the
First Impressionist Exhibition at the Nadar Gallery in
the Boulevard des Capucines in Paris. However, it was
only at the time of their second exhibition in April
1876 that, at Auguste Renoir’s invitation, Caillebotte
joined the Impressionist group. From then on he was one
of the most regular participants in their exhibitions
(1877, 1879, 1880, 1882). He organized the show of 1877
and made great efforts to restore the cohesion of the
group by persuading Claude Monet to exhibit in 1879.
Having inherited a large fortune from his parents,
Caillebotte had no need to sell his pictures and could
afford to provide crucial financial assistance for his
artist friends. He purchased their work, much disparaged
at the time, and amassed the famous collection of
Impressionist masterpieces that he left to the State.
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Other
Events
-Rodin completes his sculpture of Balzac
-"The Vellow Book" launched in London
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The year is dominated by negotiations
over the Caillebotte bequest -which, in retrospect, can be seen as the
final acceptance of the status of Impressionism in France. That most of
the main figures of the movement are now financially secure is a sign of
the increased prestige the Impressionists are beginning to enjoy.
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GAUGUIN
Breton Landscape
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SISLEY
The Banks of the Seine: Wind Blowing. |
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1895
Monet Triumphant
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Morisot Berthe
dies /1841-1895/
Berthe Morisot(b Bourges, Cher, 14 Jan 1841; d Paris, 2
March 1895).
French painter and printmaker. As the child of
upper middle-class parents, Marie-Joséphine-Cornélie and
Edme Tiburce Morisot, she was expected to be a skilled
amateur artist and was thus given appropriate schooling. In
1857 she attended drawing lessons with Geoffroy-Alphonse
Chocarne ( fl 1838–57), but in 1858 she and her
sister Edma left to study under Joseph-Benoît Guichard, a
pupil of Ingres and Delacroix. In the same year they
registered as copyists in the Louvre, copying Veronese and
Rubens. The sisters were introduced to Jean-Baptiste-Camille
Corot in 1861 and took advice from him and subsequently from
his pupil, Achille-François Oudinot (1820–91). Through these
artists they became familiar with current debates on
naturalism and began to work en plein air, painting
at Pontoise, Normandy and Brittany (e.g. Thatched Cottage
in Normandy, 1865; priv. col.).
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Other
Events
-Siegfried Bing opens a new gallery in Paris
named "L'Art Nouveau"
-First Venice Biennale
-Censorship of art exhibitions lifted in Germany
-Steedelijk Museum opens in Amsterdam
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Monet enjoys an extremely successful
and prolific trip to Norway, producing some twenty-six paintings,
including several of Mount Kolsaas. On his return, he has fifty
paintings from various series exhibited at Durand-Ruel's Paris gallery.
As with the 'Haystacks' exhibition of 1891, the critical response is
rapturous.
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SIGNAC
Red Buoy.
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RENOIR
Gabrielle and Jean.
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PISSARRO
Girl Sewing. |
The title page of the catalogue of Mary Cassatt's exhibition. |
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1896
Morisot's Retrospective
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The title page from the retrospective exhibition
of Morisot's works at Durand-Ruel's gallery,
which ran from March 5th to 21st., 1896
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Other
Events
-Art periodicals "Die Jugend" and
"Simplicissimus" founded in Munich
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In memory of Berthe Monsot, who had died the previous year, the
Impressionists organize a retrospective exhibition at Durand-RueVs Paris
gallery. Degas, Monet and Renoir hang her canvases, which, with their
vibrant colour, loose brushwork and attractive subjects, are widely
admired. The show is a considerable success.
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TOULOUSE-LAUTREC
The Toilette
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PISSARRO
The Rooftops of Old Rouen, Grey Weather
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GAUGUIN
The Noble Woman |
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1897
Sisley's One-Man Show
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Other
Events
-Max Klinger paints "Christ in Olympus"
-Henri Rousseau
paints "The Sleeping Gypsy"
-Corporation of Italian Artists founded
-Vienna Secession founded
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This year Sisley finally begins to receive some recognition for his
work. Georges Petit holds a one-man show for the artist at his gallery,
and he travels to Britain on an all-expenses-paid trip, where he paints
some twenty-five canvases. His prices improve too - a painting bought in
1887 for 150 francs sells this year for 2350 francs.
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RENOIR
Yvonne and Christine Lerolle Playing the Piano |
PISSARRO
The Boulevard Montmartre at Night |
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1898
Embracing Europe
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 Supplement to Le Gaulois (June 16th, 1898)
reviewing Monet's exhibition at Georges Petit's gallery.
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Other
Events
-Glasgow School of Art opens in buildings
designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh
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Having participated in a number of international exhibitions, the
artists are now enjoying significant prestige in Europe. This year works
by Degas, Manet, Monet, Renoir and Sisley are included in an exhibition
of the International Society of Artists in London, and Durand-Ruel
stages Impressionist exhibitions in Munich and Berlin.
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GAUGUIN
The White Horse |
PISSARRO
The Place du Theatre Francais |
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1899
Sisley Dies in Poverty
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Sisley Alfred
dies /1839-1899/
Alfred
Sisley(b Paris, 30 Oct 1839;
d
Moret-sur-Loing, nr Paris, 29 Jan 1899).
British
painter, active in France. Although overshadowed in his
lifetime by Monet and Renoir, Sisley remains a
quintessential representative of the Impressionist
movement. He was almost exclusively a painter of
landscape.
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Other
Events
-Vollard publishes albums of colour lithographs
by
Denis,
Bonnard and
Vuillard
-Berlin Secession founded
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The death of Sisley at the beginning of the year leaves his family in a
state of crippling penury, and Monet — always quick to take up a cause —
organizes a sale of his paintings at Georges Petit's gallery, which
realizes the respectable sum of 115,640francs. Sisley's clothes and
furniture are also sold, and fetch 50 francs and 950 francs
respectively.
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GAUGUIN
Deux femmes Tahitiennes |
PISSARRO
The Tuileries Gardens in Rain |
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