Aachen, Hans von (b Cologne, 1552; d Prague, 4 March 1615).
German painter and draughtsman, active also in Italy and Bohemia. One of the foremost painters of the circle gathered at the Prague court of Emperor Rudolf II, he synthesized Italian and Netherlandish influences in his portraits and erudite allegories.

Aaltonen Waino (1894—1966). Finnish sculptor and painter and a major force in modern Finnish sculpture. His work in granite is classical in line despite its monumental character. Besides a number of female torsos and portrait heads, A. executed public monuments.

Abbate Niccolo dell' (c 15 12-71). A Modenese painter who, from 1552, worked in France and was, with Pnmaticcio, a leader of the school of *Fontainebleau. A. was stylistically influenced by the illusionism of Mantegna and the softness of Correggio, but more important was Ins characteristically Mannerist treatment of landscape, as in the Rape of Proserpine. There are similarities in his work to 1 )osso 1 )ossi and also Patemer and the Antwerp school, and A. himself introduced Mannerism in landscape into France. A major picture is The Story of Aristacus.

Abbey Edwin Austin (1852-191 1). U.S. oil painter, watercolounst and book ilk, who worked much in Britain, becoming an R.A. in 1898. He drew ills in pen for works by Robert Hernck, Oliver Goldsmith and Shakespeare, and painted the scenes of The Quest of the Holy Grail on the walls of the public library, Boston, Mass.

Abbott John White (1763-1851). British amateur landscape painter. He exhibited oils regularly at the R.A.; his drawings have been admired.

Abbott Lemuel Francis (c. 1760-1803). British portrait painter, known for his portraits of Lord Nelson and the poet Cowper.

Abildgaard Nicolai Abraham (1743—1809). Danish painter who studied in Italy (1772—9). His style was classical and he favoured heroic subjects. He painted little after 4 allegorical frescoes by him in the Royal Palace, Copenhagen, which he considered his best work, were burnt in 1 794. Sketches of these together with many other works are preserved in the Royal Gallery, Copenhagen. B. Thorwaldsen was his pupil.

Aboriginal art. *Australian Aboriginal art

Abramtsevo Colony. A group of Russian artists drawn together in the 1870s and 1880s by the railway tycoon S. Mamontov. They included I. Levitan, V. Polenov, *Repin, *Serov, the Vasnetsov brothers and *Vrubel. A number were members of the *Wanderers group. The colony was nationalistic in outlook and Russian folk-art and the Russo-Byzantine tradition influenced their work. They were the 1st Russian artists to work as theatrical designers, most of them working in Mamontov's 'Private Opera'.

Abstract art. Art which does not mutate or directly represent external reality: some writers restrict the term to non-figurative art, while others use it of art which is not representational though ultimately derived from reality. Various alternatives have been suggested (non-representational art, non objective art, concrete art) but none has been generally accepted. 'Abstract' is frequently used as a relative term, paintings being more or less abstract in treatment. The original source of an abstract painting, e.g. a landscape or still-life, may be visible or decipherable: most Cubist painting is of this sort. Simplified or geometric shapes which have no direct reference to external reality may be used exclusively, as in *Mondrian's art. In a 3rd type of abstraction, brush-strokes, the colour and textures of the material used suggest the development of the painting, as in Pollock's work.

The idea that forms and colour in themselves can move the spectator underlies all A. a. Much 2Oth-c. painting and sculpture has attempted to have, like music, no representational purpose. Sources and parallels for this art have been found in ceramic decorations, decorative patterns in manuscripts and the applied arts (especially Celtic art, e.g. The Book of Kells), Mohammedan art, primitive and tribal sculpture and non-realistic elements in European painting (e.g. simplified architectural backgrounds in paintings by Fra Angelico).

20th-c. A. a. springs from Cezanne who treated some landscape motifs as geometric solids, and whose painting was much admired by the Cubists. Cubism, the 1 st abstract style, had a decisive effect on other artists and groups. The independent value of colour was not emphasized by Cubism, but by other groups. Flat pattern design in pictures, used by Gauguin and the Pont-Aven painters, was taken up by the *Nabis; the *Fauves were particularly-interested in colour. The 1st non-figurative painting was made by Kandinsky in 1910, but before this there were several painters in some of whose work the subject had become virtually indistinguishable, for example Holzel and Gustavo Moreau. The emotional impact of colour was also of the first importance for German *Expressionism. Cubism was followed and rivalled by *Futurism in Italy, *Vorticism in Britain, De Stijl in the Netherlands and various forms of abstraction in Russia, including the *Rayonism of Goncharova and Larionov, *Constructivism, and the rigid geometric A. a. of Malevich (Suprematism). Abstraction of various sorts became more common in the paintings and sculptures of the 1920s, having for the most part a geometric basis: exceptionally Arp had made some chance compositions (e.g. with torn paper), and in Surrealism there was some experiment with more informal types of abstraction. The main trend of A. a. in the 1930s was geometric, and the *Abstraction-Creation group was formed in 1932 to exhibit such art. This abstract salon was succeeded after the war by Salon des Rcalitcs Nouvelles. In abstract painting since the war informal compositions and innovations in technique have been more frequent and the main movement is *Abstract Expressionism. Sculpture during the 20th c. has been frequently abstract, particularly in the work of several major figures such as *Arp, *Brancusi and *Calder.

Abstract Expressionism. A term 1st used in 1919 to describe certain paintings by *Kandinsky — commonly applied to U.S. non-geometric abstract art by diverse artists centred mainly in N.Y. с 1942 and highly active and influential through the 1950s and early 1960s. The U.S. critic Robert Coates used tins term in 1946 with particular reference to De Kooning, *Pollock and their followers. It was officially recognized in the 1951 Museum of Modern Art exhibition 'Abstract Fainting and Sculpture in America'. The term embraces works of diverse styles and degrees of reference to content or subject, emphasizing spontaneity of expression and individuality. The U.S. critic *Rosenberg used the term *'Action painting' (1952), while *Greenberg that of 'American-type painting' (1952) to refer to the same general types of artistic activity which, however, began to be differentiated into two tendencies: brush painting concerned with gesture, action and texture (De Kooning, Pollock): *Color-field painting concerned with a large unified shape or area of colour (Newman, *Rothko, *Still).

Abstraction-Creation. School of non-figurative art founded in Pans in 1931 by A. Pevsner and N. Gabo, under the leadership of A. Herbin and *Vantongerloo. It has not attempted a full synthesis of the plastic arts but rather a merging of some of the techniques of painting and sculpture.

academic art. The term applies to art in a well-established, often realistic, tradition, showing expert command of draughtsmanship and other techniques. In the 19th с the academies of painting became centres of opposition to new movements so that a. a. now generally has the pejorative overtones of 'conservative' and 'unimaginative'.

academies. Institutions which derive their name from Plato's Academy. In effect they originated in 15th-c. Italy, where humanist gatherings quickly attracted the official patronage, e.g. the famous Accademia Platonica founded by Cosinio I of Florence (c. 1542), which became a frequent feature of subsequent bodies. Vasari's Accademia di Disegno (1562) aimed to establish the status of artists (a frequent motive of these foundations); but many were essentially teaching organizations, e.g. the academy of the Carracci. By 1 870 over 100 academies were flourishing in Europe indicating the growing awareness of reintegrating the arts and society. Among British institutions, examples are the Royal Academy of Music (R.A.M.; 1922), the Royal College of Music (R.C.M.; 1873) and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (R.A.I).A.; 1904). Literary academies have sometimes functioned as arbiters of language. In this respect the Academic Francaise, founded by Richelieu in 1635, is pre-eminent. It has, however, been accused of undue conservatism, and has excluded many great French writers, including Mohcre, Balzac and Flaubert. In painting the same kind of criticism has been levelled at the British Royal Academy (R.A.; 1768; many British painters were trained in its schools) and the French Academic Royale des Beaux-Arts (founded by Louis XIV in 1648, dissolved in 1793 and reinstated in 1816 as the Academic des Beaux-Arts). The British Academy (1901) is devoted to scholarship in many fields.

Acconci Vito (1940— ). U.S. artist, 1st noticed as a poet (1964—8), who then turned to *Performance, *Installation and *Action and Body art (1969) attracted by the experimentation of groups such as The Judson Church, and the conceptual framework established by such artists as *LeWitt, *Andre, R. *Morris, *Kosuth, *Weiner, D. Graham, *Oppenhenn and *Burden. His most notorious work 111 the 1970s was Seedbed (1972) in which he lay under the floor of the gallery loudly voicing his sexual fantasies while masturbating. In the 1980s he started making constructions, e.g. Sub-Urb (1983) and furniture, e.g. Sleeping Dog Couch (1984).

Ackermann Rudolf (1764-1834). German art publ. and bookseller who opened a shop in the Strand, London, in 1795. He introduced art lithography to Britain, 1817. A. publ. various ill. magazines, e.g. Repository of Arts, Literature, Fashions, etc., topographical books, e.g. History of the University of Oxford (2 vols, 1814), The Microcosm of London (3 vols, 1808—11), and many travel books, employing artists such as *Rowlandson and A. Pugin. The illustrated annual Forget-me-not (begun 1825) was another of A.'s typographic and artistic successes.

Action and Body art. Term used of certain art manifestations of the late 1960s, making use of the body, or direct reference to it, also involving actions by its exponents on their own bodies, or public performances calculated to shock or bore and so prompt consideration of the tedium and violence of life. Instances include patterned sun-burning, the taking of casts of limbs, e.g. B. Nauman's From Hand to Mouth (1967), a 12-hour lecture by *Beuys, self-mutilation, and shocking or obscene exhibitionism.

Action painting. A term first used by U.S. critic *Rosenberg to describe a method of painting widespread in the 1950s and 1960s, in which the paint is dripped, dropped or thrown on the canvas — hence the French term 'I'achisme (tache, 'stain' or 'spot'); some critics use both terms as interchangeable with *Abstract Expressionism. The term was first used about the work of *Pollock but has also been applied to European artists associated with lachisnie.

Activists [Hung. Aktivizmus].

Hungarian artistic, literary and political group that emerged c. 1914, after the disintegration of the group THE EIGHT  in 1912. Though not a cohesive group, the Activists were stylistically united by their reaction to the predominantly Post-Impressionist aesthetic of the Eight. Instead they turned for inspiration to Cubism, Expressionism, Futurism, Dada and Constructivism, and although some of these had previously influenced the Eight, the Activists made most consistent and profound use of these modern movements. The most notable Activists were Sándor Bortnyik, Péter Dobrovic (b 1890), János Kmetty, János Máttis Teutsch, László Moholy-Nagy, Jószef Nemes Lampérth, Lajos Tihanyi and Béla Uitz, of whom only Tihanyi had previously been a member of the Eight. Many Activists were at some time members of the MA GROUP, which revolved around the writer and artist Lajos Kassák, the main theoretical, and later artistic, driving force behind Hungarian Activism.

Adam Lambert-Sigisbert (1700-59). French Baroque sculptor, son of the sculptor Jacob-Sigisbert A. (1670-1747). In Rome (1723-33), he was strongly influenced by Bernini. His fountain Iriomphe de Neptune et d'Aniphitrile (1740) is at Versailles.

Adami Valerio (1935— ) Italian painter sometimes associated with European *Pop art. His paintings, frequently of bourgeois interiors, are in flat, bold colours, with objects outlined by strong, black lines. This allows an ironic play between figurative subject matter and abstract forms.

Adam Robert (1728-1792). Architect and designer, son of William Adam. He and his rival William Chambers were the leading British architects in the second half of the 18th century. After training under his father, he embarked on a Grand Tour in 1754; this ended early in 1758 when he settled in London rather than Edinburgh. There he established a practice that was transformed into a partnership with his younger brother James after the latter’s return in 1763 from his own Grand Tour. By then, however, the Adam style was formed, and Robert remained the partnership’s driving force and principal designer until his death. He not only developed a distinctive and highly influential style but further refined it through his large number of commissions, earning fame and a certain amount of fortune along the way. Eminently successful, he left an indelible stamp on British architecture and interior decoration and on international Neoclassicism.

Adams Herbert (1858-1945). U.S. sculptor who studied in Paris. A.'s work includes the tympanum of St Bartholomew's Church, N.Y. (1902).

Adam-Salomon Antony-Samuel (1818—81). French portrait photographer and sculptor. His photographs with their use of heavy *chiairoscuro effects were praised for their approximation to 17th-c. Dutch paintings.

Addams Lara

Adler Jankel (1895-1949). Polish painter. His figure studies were influenced by Picasso and Leger. He travelled widely in Europe teaching for a tune at the Dusseldorf Academy with Klee and working with *Hayter at *Atelier 17.

Aelst Willem van (1625/26-83?). Dutch still-life painter from Delft. He was a good draughtsman and vivid colounst. A.'s still—lifes are distinguishable from those of other Dutch painters, being frequently littered with bric-a-brac of Renaissance antiquariamsm.

Aeropittura.

Italian movement that emerged in the late 1920s from the second wave of Futurism, which it eventually supplanted. It was announced by the publication on 22 September 1929 of the Manifesto dell’Aeropittura, signed by Giacomo Balla, Benedetta (Marinetti’s wife, the painter and writer Benedetta Cappa, 1897–1977), Fortunato Depero, Gerardo Dottori, Fillia, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Enrico Prampolini, the painter and sculptor Mino Somenzi (1899–1948) and the painter Tato (pseud. of Guglielmo Sansoni, 1896–1974). This text became the key document for the new adherents of Futurism in the 1930s. Although Marinetti had written the first Futurist manifestos, and Balla, Depero and Prampolini were senior figures within the movement, it was Dottori and younger painters who developed the new form most impressively. Building on earlier concerns with the speeding automobile, both Marinetti and the Fascist government gave particular importance to aeronautics in the 1920s, extolling the pilot as a type of Nietzschean ‘Superman’.

Aertsen (Aartsen, Aertszen, Aertsz) Pieter (Pier Lange) (1507/8—75). Dutch painter, working 111 Antwerp and Amsterdam, whose detailed and colourful genre and still-life paintings were highly popular and also stylistically influential on the 17th-C. Netherlands genre school. Many of his religious paintings have been destroyed.

Aesthetic movement. British literary and artistic movement of the 1 880s in protest against the idea that art must serve some ulterior purpose and also against the 'philistine' taste of the period. W. *Pater was its most important member but Oscar Wilde its most vocal. The A. m. was ridiculed by Punch and in Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta Patience.

aesthetics. The study of the concepts of 'beauty' and 'art'. A. attempts to give an account of the human reaction to beauty and art, to define the words, to explain how men perceive the 'beautiful' or the 'artistic', to decide whether

the concepts have any other than a subjective meaning and to explain what happens when a man stands before a 'beautiful' sight or a work of 'art' — what kind of experiences he has and m what way he is able to 'experience' anything. Although the writings of Plato and Aristotle contain observations on the subject matter of a., the word was first used by the i8th-c. German philosopher A. G. Baumgarten. Some of the most prominent theoreticians in a. since the 19th с include *Winckelmann, I. Kant, *Lessing, J. Schiller, G. Hegel, J. G. Herder, F. Schelling, *Ruskin, *Baudelaire, *Taine, F. Nietzsche, *Crocc, *Worringer and *Gombrich.

African art. The term refers only to black African art and particularly to sculpture and carving (mostly in wood) from the vast area surrounding the Niger and Congo basins. Ancient Egyptian art and bushman painting from southern Africa are thus excluded. Distinction must be made between the courtly art (especially from *lfe and *Benin) which tended to be naturalistic and commemorative, and made in durable materials (stone, terracotta, bronze, hardwood); and the conceptual, often abstract art consisting mainly of wood-carvings (masks, ancestor figures) used during religious ceremonies. It was work of the 2nd kind which made its impact on Western artists at the beginning ot the 20th e.

All the tribal artists were inspired by similar beliefs. In African 'animist' religions 'being' is regarded as vital energy and not solely as the living state. Every existing thing has a vital force or energy and by understanding and correctly approaching these forces man can use them, but in order to ensure the continuance and increase of this vital energy in the tribe and in himself he must perform religious rituals at regular intervals and on set occasions. Masks and statues are used in communication with the spirit world, in the cult of the ancestors and as protective charms in the direct exploitation of the vital energy in the world.

The artist works within a formal convention to embody in his carving some concept related to the subject and to give his carving a dynamic power, so that it can be used to enlist and generate energy. He therefore does not aim to reproduce his subject realistically nor is bis 1st intention to produce 'beautiful' forms. The head of the statue is often disproportionately large owing to the belief that it is the seat of the life

force and is therefore more important than the body. Statuettes are almost always made from a single block from a tree, thus leading to elongation of the body with the arms held close to the sides, and foreshortening of the features. *Ashanti, *Bakuba, *Baluba, *Bambara, *Ba(o)ule, *Dahomey, *Dogon, *Fang, *Mende, *Nok and *Yoruba.

Afro-Cubanism. Early 2Oth-c. trend in Cuban music, literature and painting. It evolved from the European avant-garde's interest in primitive art and the writings of the anthropologist Fernando Ortiz, notably Los negros brujos (1906). There were parallel movements in Puerto Rico and Haiti.

Agar Eileen  (1899—1991). Born in Buenos Aires, settled in Britain 1911. Prominent among British Surrealist painters, who also made sculptures and assemblages: her work was included in the International Surrealist Exhibition, London 1936, and all other subsequent major exhibitions surveying Surrealism.

Agitprop [Rus. agitatsionnaya propaganda: ‘agitational propaganda’].

Russian acronym in use shortly after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 for art applied to political and agitational ends. The prefix agit- was also applied to objects decorated or designed for this purpose, hence agitpoyezd (‘agit-train’) and agitparokhod (‘agit-boat’), decorated transport carrying propaganda to the war-front. Agitprop was not a stylistic term; it applied to various forms as many poets, painters and theatre designers became interested in agitational art. They derived new styles and techniques for it from Futurism, Suprematism and Constructivism

Agnolo Andrea d' * Andrea del Sarto

Agostino di Duccio (1418—81). Florentine sculptor mainly ot reliefs, possibly a pupil of J. della Quercia. His earliest independent work was probably the altar (completed by 1442) in Modena cathedral. His major work is at the Tempio Malatestiano, Rimini (architect *Alberti, painter Piero della Francesca). A.'s style is essentially linear, his relief work is flat with no attempt at lllusionism.

Aguillon Franciscus (1567-1617)

airbrushing. A method of painting by means of a fine paint or varnish spray, used primarily in commercial and graphic arts to achieve a smooth flat finish, or gradations of colour. Some Pop and Super Realist artists also use it.

Ajanta cave paintings (Hyderabad state, India). A series of wall paintings, dating from the 1st to the 7th с ad, of which only parts now survive. They depicted scenes in the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories of his former lives, scenes from contemporary life and animals and plants. The handling is sure and subtle, the line controlled, the colour vivid and well contrasted and the presentation, a somewhat stylized realism, ignores perspective. There are also carved pillars and sculptures.

AKhRR. *Vkhutemas

Aktionismus.

Austrian group of performance artists, active in the 1960s. Its principal members were Günter Brus, Otto Muehl and Hermann Nitsch, who first collaborated informally in 1961, and Rudolf Schwarzkogler, who was introduced to the group in 1963. Others associated with the group included Anni Brus, the film maker Kurt Kren, the composer Anetis Logosthetis and the actor Heinz Cibulka. The group were influenced by the work of Adolf Frohner (b 1934), Arnulf Rainer and Alfons Schilling (b 1934), who were all in turn influenced by American action painting and by the gestural painting associated with Tachism. The members of Aktionismus attached significance, however, not so much to the paintings produced by the artist as to the artist as a participant in the process of production, as a witness to creation rather than as a creator. Muehl, Brus and Nitsch all felt drawn to public performances celebrating and investigating artistic creativity by a natural progression from their earlier sculptural or painterly activities. In 1962 Muehl and Nitsch staged their first Aktion or performance, Blood Organ, in the Perinetgasse in Vienna. In 1965 Brus produced the booklet Le Marais to accompany an exhibition of his work at the Galerie Junge Generation, Vienna. Muehl, Nitsch and Schwarzkogler all contributed, referring to themselves as the Wiener Aktionsgruppe.

alabaster. A natural stone used for statues and ornamental carving. It is a granular form of gypsum, usually white, pink or yellowish in colour and very soft. The best sort is pure white and translucent but it can be made nearly opaque to resemble marble by heating it in almost boiling water. It was extensively used in the medieval and Renaissance periods. In the late 14th c. and 15th c. English work, particularly that of Nottingham, had a European reputation. Being soft, a. allows a more delicate style of carving than is possible in stone.

Albani Francesco (1578-1660). Italian painter working at Bologna and Rome and popular with his contemporaries for graceful, if somewhat sentimental, religious and mythological paintings. He studied first under the Flemish painter *Calvaert and then at the Carracci Academy.

Albers Anni (b Berlin, 12 June 1899; d Orange, CT, 10 May 1994).
Textile designer, draughtsman and printmaker, wife of Josef Albers. She studied art under Martin Brandenburg (b 1870) in Berlin from 1916 to 1919, at the Kunstgewerbeschule in Hamburg (1919–20) and at the Bauhaus in Weimar (1922–25) and Dessau (1925–29). In 1925 she married Josef Albers, with whom she settled in the USA in 1933 after the closure of the Bauhaus, and from 1933 to 1949 she taught at Black Mountain College in North Carolina; she became a US citizen in 1937. Her Bauhaus training led her as early as the 1920s to produce rectilinear abstract designs based on colour relationships, such as Design for Rug for Child’s Room (gouache on paper, 1928; New York, MOMA), but it was during her period at Black Mountain College that she began producing her most original work, including fabrics made of unusual materials such as a mixture of jute and cellophane (1945–50; New York, MOMA) or of mixed warp and heavy linen weft with jute, cotton and aluminium (1949; New York, MOMA). She began producing prints in 1963, using lithography, screenprinting, etching and aquatint and inkless intaglio.

Albers Josef  (1888-1976). German painter and designer. After an academic training 111 Berlin, Essen and Munich, he studied at the *Bauhaus and was later invited by Gropius to teach there. His 1st work included pictures 111 glass, furniture and abstracts. In 1933 he went to the U.S.A. and developed a new free abstract style (Etude in Red-Violet, 1935), later became interested in the manipulation ot colour (his series ot Varianles from 1947), and developed as the doyen of U.S. geometric abstractionists (Homage to the Square: in secret, 1962). He was always an experimental artist, his work being closely related to his practice as a teacher. In 1955 he became chairman of the Design Department at Yale Univ.

Alberti Leon Battista (1404—72). Italian humanist and architect born in Genoa. In Florence (c. 1428) he formed friendships with *Donatello, *Gliiberti, *Robbia and *Masaccio to whom he dedicated his important treatise on painting, Delia Pittnra (1436) containing the first description of *perspective in depiction. As a great humanist, he stressed the rational and scientific nature of the arts, departing from religious symbolism or function, and urging a return to classical modes.

Albertinelli Mariotto (1474-1515). Florentine painter. Close friend of, and collaborator with, Fra *Bartolommeo, whom he met in the atelier of *Rosselli. Their partnership broke up about 1512, when A. became an innkeeper. With a technique sometimes indistinguishable from Bartolommeo's A.'s best independent "work is his Visitation (1503).

Albright Ivan Le Loraine (1897-1983). U.S. painter born in Chicago. Studied 111 Chicago and at National Academy of Design, N.Y. He evolved a personal, naturalistic style outside the mainstream of modern art. Worked slowly and meticulously, drawing on experience of seamy life in Chicago where he lived.

Alcamenes (late 5th с. BC). Athenian sculptor, a pupil of Phidias. The group Procne and Itys is attributed to him, and he may have collaborated in the sculptures for the Parthenon.

Aldegrever Heinrich (1502-c. 1555). German engraver and painter who worked on a small scale, greatly influenced by *Durer.

Aldobrandini Wedding, The. A 1st-c. BC: Roman wall painting after a Greek original; so called after a former owner.

Alechinsky Pierre (1927— ). Belgian painter; he studied painting in Brussels and engraving with *Hayter in Paris. One of the founders of the international *Cobra group (1948).

Alen, William Van
(b Brooklyn, NY, 1888; d New York, 24 May 1954).
 American architect. While studying at the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, he was apprenticed to Clarence True, a speculative builder in New York, after which he joined the local firm of Copeland & Dole and later Clinton & Russell. Van Alen also studied under Donn Barber (1871–1925) at the Beaux-Arts Institute in New York and in 1908 won a fellowship to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where he studied under Victor A. F. Laloux. From 1911 to 1925 he was in partnership with H. Craig Severance (1879–1941) in Manhattan.

Alenza Leonardo (1807-1845). Spanish painter and illustrator. He studied at the Real Academia de S Fernando, Madrid, under Juan Antonio Ribera y Fernández and José de Madrazo y Agudo. He worked independently of court circles and achieved some fame but nevertheless died in such poverty that his burial was paid for by friends. He is often described as the last of the followers of Goya, in whose Caprichos and drawings he found inspiration for the genre scenes for which he became best known. Of these scenes of everyday life and customs the more interesting include The Beating (Madrid, Casón Buen Retiro) and Galician with Puppets (c. 1835; Madrid, Casón Buen Retiro). Alenza y Nieto’s numerous drawings include the illustrations for Alain-René Lesage’s Gil Blas (Madrid, 1840), for an edition of the poems of Francisco de Quevedo published by Castello and for the reviews Semanario pintoresco and El Reflejo. The painting Triumph of David (1842; Madrid, Real Acad. S Fernando, Mus.) led to his election as an Académico de mérito at the Real Academia de S Fernando in 1842, and he produced such portraits as that of Alejandro de la Peña (Madrid, Real Acad. S Fernando, Mus.) and a Self-portrait (Madrid, Casón Buen Retiro). His two canvases entitled Satire on Romantic Suicide (Madrid, Mus. Romántico) are perhaps the most characteristic of his works.
 

Alexander John White (1856-1915). U.S.-born painter and ill. He became a fashionable portrait painter in the 1880s. In Paris, 1890—1901, he was a friend of *Whistler and *Rodin, and was influenced by the *Art Noiweau. He executed murals at the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (1895—96) and the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh (1905—15).

Alexander mosaic (3rd c. hi:) also called The Battle of Issus. The finest Roman mosaic known, which shows a battle between Greeks and Persians, including a combat supposedly between Alexander the Great and Darius; it may be a copy of a work by the Greek painter *Philoxenus of Eretria (r. 300 be:). Found at Pompeii.

Algardi Alessandro (1598—1654). Bologncsc sculptor. After studying at the Carr.tcci Academy he settled r. 1625 in Rome, where his friends included *Domenichmo, N. *Poussm and *Sacchi. A. excelled as a portraitist, particularly in the depth of his character analysis, e.g his Francesco Bracciolini. Although A.'s approach was classical and although he was Bernini's chief rival, his statue of Innocent X was influenced by the bitter's Urban VIII and above all his tomb for Leo XI (1645/50) is the first of many to be modelled on Bernini's for Urban. From 1646 to 1653 A. was working on his relief of The Meeting of Attila and Leo I. With its modulation from the free-standing figures of the foreground to the shallow relief of the background, this was to be influential on later relief technique.

Algarotti Count Francesco (1712—64). Italian writer and connoisseur of art and music and a friend of Voltaire and Frederick II of Prussia. In Neutonianisnw per le dame ... (1737; trs. 1739) he popularized Newton's optical theories, and the Sagoio sopra I'opera in musica (1736; An lissay on the Opera, 1767) was a protest against the elaborate machinery of the i8th-c. stage. He was a friend of *Canaletto and *Tiepolo whom he influenced.

Aliamet Jean-Jacques (1726-88). French engraver. Executed engravings after C.-J. Vernet and I7th-c. Dutch painters, particularly N. Berchem. His brother, Francois-Germain (1734—88), also an engraver, worked in London under Sir R. Strange.

Alken Henry (1785—1851). Best known of a family of Danish sporting artists who settled in Britain. He was a prolific painter and water-colourist of hunting, coaching and shooting scenes and produced a famous series of aquatint prints. The quality of his work declined in the 1820s.

Allan David (1744-96). Scottish genre and portrait painter. He worked in Rome (1764—77) and won a prize there for a history painting. Sometimes called the 'Scottish Hogarth', more as a measure of his fame than his style.

Allan Sir William (7782—1850). Scottish history painter admired by Walter Scott. A. and *Wilkie were largely responsible for establishing Scottish historical genre painting.

alia prima (It. at first). Method of painting in which the colour is applied in one session and no subsequent modification is made. In oil painting any previous drawing or under-painting is obliterated so that it docs not affect the final result.

allegory. A story, whether in verse or in prose, or a painting in which the literal account or presentation is intended to have, or is interpreted as having, another and parallel meaning.

Allegretto Nuzi (di Nuzio) (1315/20-73). Italian painter working at Florence. He was affected by the Sienese school as well as by the work of Giotto. A. signed many of his pictures in full, which was unusual in the 14th с.

Allied Artists’ Association [A.A.A.].

Organization established in London in 1908, dedicated to non-juried exhibitions of international artists’ work. The main impetus for the A.A.A. came from Frank Rutter (1876–1937), art critic of the Sunday Times, and the first exhibition was held at the Albert Hall, London. Inspired by the Salon des Indépendants in Paris, Rutter wanted to set up an exhibiting platform for the work of progressive artists. On payment of a subscription, artists were entitled to exhibit five works (subsequently reduced to three) and over 3000 items were included in the first show. Rutter also wanted the A.A.A. to have a foreign section and for the first exhibition collaborated with Jan de Holewinski (1871–1927), who had been sent to London to organize an exhibition of Russian arts and crafts.

Allori Alessandro (1535-1607). Florentine painter. Used the name Bronzino after the death of his uncle, II *Bronzino. Studied under Bronzino and in Rome under Michelangelo. Although his drawing was rigid and his colouring cold he was popular as a painter of decorative frescoes into which he inserted portraits of prominent contemporaries. Cristofano (1577—1621), Mannerist painter, son of Alessandro. His painting united the rich colouring of the Venetian with the careful drawing of the Florentine school. His best-known painting is Judith with the Head of Holojemes. Judith is a portrait of his mistress Mazzafirra, while Holofernes is supposed to be a self-portrait.

Allston Washington (1779-1843). U.S. painter and writer. In Europe (1801-10, 1811-18), he studied under 13. West in London and visited Pans and Kome, becoming a close friend of S. T. Coleridge, W. Irving and 13. Thorwaldsen. As the 1st U.S. artist to paint romantic landscapes he was a precursor of the *Hudson River school; he also painted portraits, e.g. that of Coleridge, and large dramatic biblical and classical subjects. His Lectures on Art were publ. in 1850.

Alma-Tadema Lawrence (1836-1912). Netherlands academic painter who settled in London (1870). He was very popular for his idealized, but accurately detailed and brilliantly coloured, scenes of Greek and Roman life.

Alsloot Denis van (d. с 1626). Flemish painter who specialized in pageant and procession scenes.

Altamira. Limestone cave in Sautander province, northern Spain, where animal paintings of the upper palaeolithic or leptolithic era were first discovered (1879). A.'s famous roof frieze of naturalistic bison is now recognized as late Magdalcnian art с. ю,ооо не: belonging to the final phase of the ice age hunting cultures of Western Europe. The paintings are executed in earth colours, mostly blacks and reds, straight on to porous rock; in some cases one painting is superimposed on another. *Cave art.

Altdorfer Albrecht (c. 1480-1538). German painter and city architect and councillor of Regensburg, Bavaria. His St George is one of the first true landscape paintings in Europe. In it a mass of forest foliage soars above the tiny figures of St George and the dragon. Even in his early works, which show influences of L. Cranach and Durer, landscape predominates, and a tour of the Danube and the Austrian Alps (c 1511) confirmed his inclinations. An immediate result was the series of canvases, drawings and etchings of Danube landscapes (*Danube school). Other major works are Alexander's Victory, also called the Battle of Arbela (1529), and the Si Vlorian Altar. This was eight panels depicting the life of St Plorian, painted for St Florian's church, near Linz, Austria. Seven of the panels are now in colls elsewhere; the Germanisches N.-Mus., Nuremberg; the Uffizi; and a private coll.

Altichiera da Zevio (fl. 1369-84). Italian painter from Verona. His figures are reminiscent of Giotto's style but show a greater awareness of one another suggestive of later painters. There are frescoes by him in Verona and Padua including a great Crucifixion in the church of Sant'Antonio, Padua.

Altman Nathan
(1889 – 1970) was a Russian avant-garde artist, Cubist painter,
stage designer and book illustrator.

Alunno di Domenico (Disciple of Domenico, i.e. *Ghirlandaio). Name given by *13erenson to a Florentine painter and ill. (fl. late 15th—early 16th c). His work included the predclla for Ghirlandaio's Adoration of the Magi (1488) for the church of the Innocenti, Florence. Berenson later discovered a contract (1488) made for the execution of this predclla between the prior of the Innocenti and a Bartolommeo di Giovanni; he accepted this as the real name of his artist but retained the name A. as more instructive.

Amadeo Giovanni Antonio (1447-1522). Italian sculptor and architect. He was principally active in Bergamo, Cremona, Milan and Pavia. His professional success, in terms of the architectural and sculptural commissions and official appointments that he received, was far greater than that of any of his contemporaries in Lombardy in the late 15th century, including Bramante. Amadeo’s influence in both fields, for example in his use of all’antica ornament of local origin, was considerable.

Aman-Jean Edmond (1858-1936). French painter, pastellist and printmaker. He studied from 1880 under the academic painter Henri Lehmann at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris; there he befriended Georges Seurat with whom he shared a studio for several years. He also studied under Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, working as his assistant on the Sacred Grove (1884; Lyon, Mus. B.-A.). In 1886 he obtained a travel scholarship to Rome and on his return befriended Symbolist poets such as Stephane Mallarme, Paul Verlaine and Philippe-Auguste Villiers de l’Isle Adam. While the poets sought to subvert language in order to express new sensations, Aman-Jean relied on pictorial and iconographic traditions. He specialized in pictures of languid young women turned in profile to the left or gazing into space, as in Girl with Peacock (1895; Paris, Mus. A. Dec.), using broken brushstrokes and colour contrasts that by then had largely shed their avant-garde connotations. Typical works such as the colour lithograph Beneath the Flowers (1897; Paris, Bib. N.) and the portrait of Mlle Thadie C. Jacquet (1892; Paris. Mus. d’Orsay) led the critic Camille Mauclair to identify him as an heir to the English Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.

Amasis painter. Greek potter and vase painter in the *black-figured style; his figures arc lithe, vigorous and witty.

Amaury-Duval Eugene-Emmanuel (1806-1885). French painter and writer. A student of Ingres, he first exhibited at the Salon in 1830 with a portrait of a child. He continued exhibiting portraits until 1868. Such entries as M. Geoffroy as Don Juan (1852; untraced), Rachel, or Tragedy (1855; Paris, Mus. Comédie-Fr.) and Emma Fleury (1861; untraced) from the Comédie-Française indicate an extended pattern of commissions from that institution. His travels in Greece and Italy encouraged the Néo-Grec style that his work exemplifies. Such words as refinement, delicacy, restraint, elegance and charm pepper critiques of both his painting and his sedate, respectable life as an artist, cultural figure and writer in Paris. In contrast to Ingres’s success with mature sitters, Amaury-Duval’s portraits of young women are his most compelling. In them, clear outlines and cool colours evoke innocence and purity. Though the portraits of both artists were influenced by classical norms, Amaury-Duval’s have control and civility in contrast to the mystery and sensuousness of Ingres’s.

Amberger Christoph (c. 1500-r. 1561/2). German portrait painter whose work shows Venetian influence. Working in Augsburg he painted many famous people, including the Emperor Charles V (7532). American Abstract Artists. U.S. group ot painters formed in 1936, they included George I. K. Morris and Ibraham Lassaw. Their annual shows maintained a tradition of academic, if somewhat mannered, *Cubism.

American Artists’ Congress.

Organization founded in 1936 in the USA in response to the call of the Popular Front and the American Communist Party for formations of literary and artistic groups against the spread of Fascism. In May 1935 a group of New York artists met to draw up the ‘Call for an American Artists’ Congress’; among the initiators were George Ault (1891–1948), Peter Blume, Stuart Davis, Adolph Denn, William Gropper (b 1897), Jerome Klein, Louis Lozowick (1892–1973), Moses Soyer, Niles Spencer and Harry Sternberg. Davis became one of the most vociferous promoters of the Congress and was not only the national executive secretary but also the editor of the organization’s magazine, Art Front, until 1939.

Amigoni Jacopo (1675-1752). Venetian Rococo painter who worked in various European countries and during his own lifetime was very popular. Ammanjo(b)st (1539-91). Swiss woodcut artist and painter who settled in Nuremberg (1561), where he became a prolific ill. He executed woodcut ills for S. Feyerabend's Bible (1564) and a set of 115 for a series on arts and trades.

Ammanati Bartolomeo (1511-92). Florentine sculptor and architect. In Florence he carved the Neptune fountain (1563-77) in the Piazza della Signoria and built the famous Bridge of the Trinity (1567-9), destroyed in an air raid (1944), but since rebuilt, and extensions (1560—77) to the Pitti Palace. There are also buildings by A. in Rome and Lucca.

Amsler Samuel (1791-1849). Swiss engraver who worked in Munich, Germany. His work includes good reproductions of Raphael's paintings and 'I'riinnphal March of Alexander lite Great after a sculpture by *Thorwaldscn.

Amsterdam school.

Group of Expressionist architects and craftsworkers active mainly in Amsterdam from c. 1915 to c. 1930. The term was first used in 1916 by Jan Gratama in an article in a Festschrift for H. P. Berlage. From 1918 the group was loosely centred around the periodical Wendingen (1918–31). They were closely involved in attempts to provide architectural solutions for the social and economic problems in Amsterdam during this period.

Analytical Cubism. *Cubism

Anamorphosis. Term of Greek origin referring to distorted image of a subject represented in drawing or painting, which will only reveal the image in true proportion when viewed from a certain point or reflected in a curved mirror (e.g. skull in *Holbein's Ambassadors).

Anderson Laurie (1947- ). U.S. *Peiformance artist, composer and *Postmodern poet. Her four-part work United States I—IV (1979-83), a 12-hour long work presented solo by A. of theatrical entertainment took Performance art to the wider public. In her solo Performance limply Places (1989) she deals with the U.S. sense of vastness and 'the need to change, sometimes interpreted as freedom.

Anderson Sophie (1823-1903). French Pre-Raphaelite Painter

Andokides. Greek vase painter in the *red-figured style.

Andre Carl (1935- ) U.S. *Minimahst sculptor. In 1964-5 he exhibited 'primary structures', e.g. Cedar Piece, piled-up timber, 6 ft (2 m.) high, for which *Brancusi's Endless Column (1УЗ7-8) was 'the supreme inspiration'. From T966 A. started his 'scatter pieces on the floor, first using firebricks, e.g. Lever (1966), 29 ft (S.8 m.) of 137 aligned, loose bricks, and then, soon after, styrofoam bars and subsequently modular plates of copper, aluminium, steel, iron, magnesium, zinc or lead, e.g. Twelfth (Copper Corner (1975) consisting of 78 plates of copper, each 19,5 sq. in. (126 sq. cm.). These are his best-known works. Sometimes the flat plates are rich in colour, according to the metal used, and may be assembled as 'particles' on the floor in а checkerboard pattern of systemic units. A. defined sculpture as developing from 'form' to 'structure' and finally to 'place', i.e. the perception of the floorbound bricks or plates as sculpture depending on the site where they are presented and whether a particular sense of place is created.

Andrea da Firenze - Andrea di Bonaiuto (1346-1379). Italian painter.

Andrea del Castagno. (b Castagno, before 1419; d Florence, bur 19 Aug 1457).
Italian painter. He was the most influential 15th-century Florentine master, after Masaccio, of the realistic rendering of the figure and the representation of the human body as a three-dimensional solid by means of contours. By translating into the terms of painting the statues of the Florentine sculptors Nanni di Banco and Donatello, Castagno set Florentine painting on a course dominated by line (the Florentine tradition of disegno), the effect of relief and the sculptural depiction of the figure that became its distinctive trait throughout the Italian Renaissance, a trend that culminated in the art of Michelangelo.

Andrea del Sarto 'senza errori', 'the faultless painter' (1486— 1531). Florentine painter with feeling for tone and colour characteristic of the Venetian rather than the Florentine school. Invited by Francis I to Pans (1518) he returned to Florence (1519) to his wife. His life and works were much studied and admired in the 19th с and Browning's poem Andrea del Sarto was a sensitive and acceptable picture of a gifted,irresolute and reflective man. A.'s frescoes Birth of the Virgin (1514) and Madonna del Sacco (1525), both in S. Annunziata church, Florence, are perfect examples of the High Renaissance. Other major works include Madonna delle Arpic (1517), classical in style, and the Holy Family was a favourite theme. Among his pupils were the Mannerists da *Pontormo and G. B. Rosso.

Andrea del Verrocchio (1435-1488). Italian sculptor, painter, draughtsman and goldsmith. He was the leading sculptor in Florence in the second half of the 15th century, and his highly successful workshop, in which Leonardo da Vinci trained, had a far-reaching impact on younger generations. A wide range of patrons, including the Medici family, the Venetian State and the city council of Pistoia, commissioned works from him. Exceptionally versatile, Verrocchio was talented both as a sculptor—of monumental bronzes, silver figurines and marble reliefs—and as a painter of altarpieces. He was inspired by the contemporary interest in the Antique and in the study of nature, yet, approaching almost every project as a new challenge, developed new conceptions that often defied both traditional aesthetics and conventional techniques. His fountains, portrait busts and equestrian sculpture are indebted to an iconographic tradition rooted in the early 15th century and yet they are transformed by his original outlook. His funerary ensembles are unique, so that, despite the great admiration they inspired, they had no imitators. Though a highly important artist in his own right, Verrocchio has often had the misfortune of being seen as in the shadow of his pupil Leonardo.

Andrews Michael (1928-95). British painter of complex, but traditional subjects, which he summed up as pictures of 'mysterious conventionality'. A. is best known for his series of party pictures painted after 1959, and for the series Lights (post-1970), as well as for his monumental landscapes of Australia.

Angelico, Fra (Giovanni da Fiesole) (c. 1387-1455). Italian painter celebrated for his frescoes in the convent of S. Marco, Florence. In 1407 he entered the Dominican convent of S. Domenico, Fiesole, near Florence, of which he was later prior (1449-52). Papal politics forced the community to leave Fiesole (1409-18) and some time after their return A. began to paint; nothing is known about his early training but he shows the influence of such international Gothic painters as *Monaco. He executed (c.1428—33) an altarpiece (extensively altered by di *Credi, с 1501) and 3 frescoes (sala capitolarc of the convent) for his own convent and an Annunciation for the church of S. Domenico, Cortona; these foreshadow the simplicity of his mature work. In 1433 he was commissioned to paint the 'Linaiuoli' or Linen-workers' triptych, particularly famous for the 12 angels playing on musical instruments which decorate the frame surrounding the central figures of the Virgin and Child. Two triptychs, painted after this tor the churches of S. Domenico, Cortona and Perugia in the Gothic style, show that A. was attempting to break with the conventions of this form of altarpiece. In 1436 Cosimo de' Medici commissioned A. to paint 3 altarpieces including the high altar for the Dominican convent of S. Marco, Florence — Virgin and Child Unthroned with SS Cosmas and Damian (1438—40). In these and the slightly earlier Coronation of the Virgin for Fiesole the figures of saints and angels recede towards the central figure, marking a step in the development of the sacra conversazione altarpiece. A. also uses single panels instead of the triptych and completely abandons the Gothic gold background; in the S. Marco altarpiece he introduces landscape background. The predella scenes for this altarpiece from the lives ot SS Cosinas and Damian illustrate A.'s excellence as a colourist and are his most lively narrative paintings. A. began, about this time, to supervise the painting of 50 frescoes of scenes from the life of Christ for the cells of the convent of S. Marco; he himself probably painted not more than 10. Their setting and purpose, which was not decorative but to act as an aid to meditation, were ideally suited to the direct and simple piety characteristic of A.'s painting. Those by him are the most straightforward and hence most effectively fulfil their purpose. In 1447 he was in Orvieto where he painted The Last Judgement, finished by Signorelh, and in Rome executing decorative work 111 the Vatican for Pope Nicholas V. Only his frescoes in the chapel of Nicholas V (1447/8) survive. In keeping with their setting these are richer and more complex than any of A.'s previous work. A. died in Rome. Much of A.'s work refers back to Giotto and he took no part in the artistic experiments and secular interests of his contemporaries, although he utilized new visual techniques such as perspective if they served the devotional purpose of his painting. *Gozzoli was his pupil.

Angrand Charles (1854-1926). French painter. He was trained at the Académie de Peinture et de Dessin in Rouen, where he won prizes. Although he failed to gain entry to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, Angrand began to win a controversial local reputation for canvases in a loosely Impressionist manner. In 1882 he secured a post as a schoolteacher at the Collège Chaptal in Paris. With this security he was able to make contacts in progressive artistic circles, and in 1884 he became a founder-member of the Salon des Indépendants. His paintings of this period depict rural interiors and kitchen gardens, combining the broken brushwork of Monet and Camille Pissarro with the tonal structure of Bastien-Lepage (e.g. In the Garden, 1884; priv. col.).

Anguissola Sofonisba (1530s—i62<i). Italian painter, perhaps the best-known female artist of the 16th c, influenced, as were many of her contemporaries, by *Titian. She mainly produced portraits and self-portraits. Her pursuit of a professional career did not conflict with contemporary notions of womanhood, largely because of her noble birth, and she was hailed as a prodigal exception. A. trained for 3 years under the man who appears in her Bcrnadino Catnpi Painthig Sojomsba Anguissola (late 1550s), in which she portrays herself as his subject. From 1559—80 she was court painter to the Queen of Spain.

Animal style. Used generally to refer to Germanic animal ornament from the 5th с to the period of the ^Renaissance. Based on 4th-c. provincial Roman prototypes, the forms became increasingly abstract: in the 5th с broken up into separate, very stylized elements and linked together with obvious coherence; in the 6th c. elongated and inter-laced into rhythmic snake-like patterns. A. s. reached its greatest refinement in Scandinavia.

Annandale Imitation Realists.

Australian group of mixed-media artists active in 1962. They formed for the purpose of staging an exhibition of the same name. Ross Crothall (b 1934), Mike Brown and Colin Lanceley worked together in Crothall’s studio in Annandale, a suburb of Sydney, in 1961. They shared an interest in assemblage, collage, junk art, objets trouvés and in non-Western art. Brown, who had worked in New Guinea in 1959, was impressed by the use in tribal house decoration and body ornament of modern urban rubbish such as broken plates and bottletops. Crothall delighted in the altered objet trouvé, for example egg cartons unfolded to become the Young Aesthetic Cow, or pieces of furniture crudely gathered into frontally posed female icons, sparkling with buttons and swirling house-paint, with such titles as Gross Débutante. Lanceley was deeply influenced by his teacher John Olsen and through him by Jean Dubuffet. He covered impastoed surfaces with junk materials, often decorating distorted female forms with strings of pearls, broken plates and other items; in Glad Family Picnic (1961; Sydney, A.G. NSW) elements combine into a garish visual cacophony.

Annenkov Yuri
(b Petropavlovsk, Kazakhstan, 23 July 1889; d Paris, 18 July 1974).
Russian painter, draughtsman and stage designer. He studied at the University of St Petersburg (later Petrograd) in 1908 and in the private studio of Savely Zeidenberg (1862–1924). In 1909–10 he attended the studio of Yan Tsyonglinsky (1850–1914) in St Petersburg, where he became acquainted with the avant-garde artists Yelena Guro (1877–1913), Mikhail Matyushin and Matvey Vol’demar (1878–1914). In 1911–12 he worked in the studios of Maurice Denis and Félix Vallotton in Paris, then in Switzerland (1913) before returning to St Petersburg. As a painter he was a modernist, and his work developed rapidly towards abstraction, although he did not adhere to any particular branch of it. His works of the time use various devices of stylization and decorativeness, and some of them echo the free associations of Marc Chagall, but fundamentally they remain geometrically based compositions. In 1919–20 he made a series of abstract sculptural assemblages and a great number of abstract collages.

Annesley David (1936— ). British abstract sculptor. At first influenced by *Caro, A. produces characteristic works of thm, colourfully painted, sheet steel.

Annigoni Pictro (1910—88). Italian painter and highly successful society portraitist, notably of British royalty.

Anquetin Louis (1861-1932). French painter. He came to Paris in 1882 and studied art at the Ateliers of Bonnat and Cormon, where he was a contemporary and friend of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Emile Bernard and Vincent van Gogh. His early work shows the influence of Impressionism and of Edgar Degas. In 1887 Anquetin and Bernard devised an innovative method of painting using strong black contour lines and flat areas of colour; Anquetin aroused much comment when he showed his new paintings, including the striking Avenue de Clichy: Five O’Clock in the Evening (1887; Hartford, CT, Wadsworth Atheneum) at the exhibition of Les XX in Brussels and at the Salon des Indйpendants in Paris in 1888. The new style, dubbed Cloisonnisme by the critic Edouard Dujardin (1861–1949), resulted from a study of stained glass, Japanese prints and other so-called ‘primitive’ sources; it was close to the Synthetist experiments of Paul Gauguin and was adopted briefly by van Gogh during his Arles period. Anquetin’s works were shown alongside Gauguin’s and Bernard’s at the Cafй Volpini exhibition in 1889, where they attracted considerable attention among younger artists.

Ansehno Giovanni (1934— ). Italian artist who works with stone, metal, wood and whose concerns are energy, gravity, space, time and infinity, e.g. Verso Infinite (1969). One of the original members of the *Arte Povera group whose proponent Germano Celant said of A.'s work that it 'exalts precan-ousness'. From 1969 he began using words which more explicitly connected images and ideas as in *Conceptual art. hi the 1980s A. created site-specific installations.

Antelami Benedetto (12th c). N. Italian Romanesque sculptor. He executed a relief of the Deposition (1178) and other work in Parma cathedral.

Anterior (late 6th с. вс). Important Greek sculptor who worked in Athens. Works attributed to A. are in the Acropolis Museum, Athens, and the pedimental sculpture of the Archaic temple of Apollo at Delphi.

anti-cerne (Fr. ferric, outline). The opposite of a black outline; it is a contour effected by leaving a bare strip of ground between 2 or more areas of colour.

Antipodean group.

Australian group of artists formed in Melbourne in February 1959 and active until January 1960. The founder-members were the art historian Bernard Smith (b 1916), who was elected chairman, and the painters Charles Blackman, Arthur Boyd, David Boyd (b 1924), John Brack, John Perceval and Clifton Pugh. They were joined subsequently by the Sydney-based painter Bob Dickerson (b 1924). Smith chose the name of the group and compiled the Antipodean Manifesto, the appearance of which coincided with the inaugural exhibition, The Antipodeans, held in the Victorian Artists’ Society rooms in Melbourne in August 1959. The group’s main concern was to promote figurative painting at a time when non-figurative painting and sculpture were becoming established as the predominant trend in Australia, as in the USA and Europe. To gain a more prestigious venue to show their work, the group asked Smith to enlist the support of Kenneth Clark, who responded by suggesting the Whitechapel Gallery in London. The Gallery’s director, Bryan Robertson (b 1925), received British Council support and made a selection for an exhibition entitled Recent Australian Paintings (1961), which featured the work of the group alongside that of Jon Molvig, Albert Tucker, Sidney Nolan, Fred Williams and others. Although the members of the group had experienced much critical opposition, they felt vindicated by their inclusion in this exhibition, which established that contemporary Australian painting had a well-founded and powerful national identity.

Antolini Giovanni Antonio (1756-1841). Italian painter.

Antonello da Messina (c. 1430—79). Sicilian painter. In Naples he saw work by Netherlandish artists and may have studied under Colantonio, whose style was based on that of J. van Eyck. He learnt Van Eyck's method of oil painting and achieved a delicate synthesis between the Northern and Italian styles. Working in Venice (1475) he passed his knowledge on to G. *Belhni, altering his manner of painting and through him exercising great influence on the development of the Venetian school. His paintings include St Sebastian, Crucifixion, Portrait of a Young Man, St Jerome in his Study and Condottiere.

Antonio da Sangallo the Elder  (1460-1534). Architect, woodworker, sculptor and engineer, brother of Giuliano da Sangallo. The earlier part of his career was overshadowed by that of his brother, with whom he ran a workshop in Florence for nearly 40 years until the latter’s death. Their first known work of collaboration is the Crucifix (1481) for the high altar of SS Annunziata, Florence. This was followed by a model (1482) for the church and monastery of the Badia, Florence, the seating (1487–8) in the refectory of S Pietro, Perugia, and a model (1491) for S Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi, Florence. Antonio was also active as a military engineer, occasionally representing his brother on the construction sites of fortifications. The first independent work attributed to him (c. 1490) is the Crucifix for the church of S Gallo (destr.), which is now kept in SS Annunziata, Florence.

Antonio da Sangallo the Younger (1483–1546). Italian architect.