|
|
|
The Sculpture of sub-Saharan Africa
African artefacts are created first and foremost in order to serve
particular social functions. They can therefore only be understood
in relation to their original context - in political or religious
ritual activities, for example. The motifs are often based on
symbolic or cultural ideas rather than natural forms, and their
meanings are not necessarily accessible to all members of a given
society. The African artist and his patrons do not always come from
the same ethnic group, and often the patron's demands and
specifications play an important part in the creative process. The
aesthetic quality of a particular object is never its sole purpose,
but its ability to affect the emotions of those who manipulate and
view it constitutes an important aspect of its potency or
effectiveness within the controlled context of its use.
|
|
|
Dan mother
figure,
Ivory Coast,
wood and pigments,
height 64 cm (25 in).
|
MOTHERAND CHILD FIGURES
The representation of motherhood in plastic art is a familiar
subject in the majority of African cultures. It celebrates the
fertility of women and revives beliefs in the mythical mother who
gave life to humankind - a crucial element within society in that it
ensures the continuity of the species. The composition of figures
generally consists of a seated or kneeling female with a baby at her
breast or on her back. The representation of maternity by most
African peoples is characterized by idealism rather than realism.
The mother figure usually has an expressive face that conveys a
sense of tranquil dignity- but seldom shows obvious emotion. Some
mother figures from the Congolese area are clearly derived from the
Christian iconography of the Madonna and Child, yet these specimens,
too, in their formal attitude and cultural significance are typical
examples of African sculpture. Recent studies have linked these
images to the development of mpemba - a new propitiatory nkisi cult
associated with the magical treatment of gynaecological ailments.
This activity was very widespread in the Loango and Cabinda areas
during the second half of the 19th century.
|
Wooden Kongo (Yombe) mother and child figure, Zaire, height
23.7 cm (914 in).
Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico Luigi Pigorini,
Rome.
|
Wooden Yoruba mother and child figure, Nigeria, height 71.5
cm (28 in).
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
|
|
|
|
|
Wooden Dogon mother figure, Mali, height 68 cm (26 in).
|
"Beautiful, Correct, and Appropriate"
The aesthetic test of a sculpted object within many African
communities is the extent to which it is "beautiful, correct, and
appropriate." Efficacy is largely determined by the measure to which
it conforms to a model and its overall cultural significance. The
model is understood as an ideal formal structure as well as the
visual image of an ethical concept. An artefact from a traditional
culture of sub-Saharan Africa holds a different cultural
significance depending on the social and political organization of
the group and on the role of the artist. In unstratified, mobile
societies such as the Lobi of northwestern Burkina Faso, there are
no professional carvers and no separate role or identity for a
person who carves. Anyone who feels the need for another figure for
one of the household shrines will carve it himself. Consequently it
is hard to identify any such thing as a Lobi carving style.
Furthermore, there is no clear symbolism or iconography that a
person refers to in order to create a figure intended for a shrine
of a specific type; therefore, only the person who carves it is able
to tell the purpose for which the figure will be used. Aesthetic
evaluations of carved forms are matters of individual concern among
the Lobi. Similarly, the necessary skills and sensibilities required
for the making of any kind of artefact are thought to be possessed
by even7 adult member of the community. In contrast, in societies
with centralized political institutions, artists have a monopoly on
the work for the monarch and court. The need of the ruling class to
assert and make legitimate its authority through a series of power
symbols led to the creation of a courtlv,
ceremonial type of art in ivory, bronze, stone, and wood.
Complementary to this style is the popular art, which, by contrast,
is associated with magical and religious practices. In a centralized
state, the individuality of the artist may be restricted by the need
to express the static nature of the monarchy. It is wrong, however,
to assume that traditional African art cannot express individual
creativity. Many examples of creative flair exist and can be
attributed to the work of a particular workshop or artist.
|
Wooden Kongo mpemba mother figure, Zaire, height 16.2 cm (6 in).
Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico Luigi Pigorini, Rome
|
|
|
|
|
TOMB FIGURES
In the Lower Congo region, groups of commemorative figures in wood
or, more rarely, stone were used to indicate the burial places of
sovereigns or important individuals. These figures, the oldest of
which date from the 17th to the 18th century, may have been simple
memorial monuments or may have performed the function of guardians,
offering protection against the evils of black magic. Generally,
tomb figures depict people seated with crossed legs and bearing
symbols of authority, such as a conical or truncated headdress
adorned with leopard claws, effigies, or the insignia of the
sovereign. Figures of women with children were sometimes placed on
the tombs of high-ranking females. These probably represented the
sovereign's wives or women of royal blood.
Certain common characteristics in these tomb figures, such as the
use of coloured pigments on the eyes and mouth, the vaguely Oriental
features, and particularly the frequent lack of symmetry (a rarity
in African sculptural tradition) were once thought to have been
stylistic influences from Asia. However, they are now widely
recognized as typical characteristics of the art objects produced in
the coastal Kongo. The gestures and postures, as well as the
decorative motifs, have been interpreted as expressions of the
supernatural.
|
|
|
|
Kongo ntadi statue, Zaire, steatite and pigments, height 38 cm (15
in). Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico Luigi Pigohni, Rome.
|
Kongo ntadi statue, Zaire, steatite and wood, height 35 cm (13 in).
Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico Luigi Pigohni, Rome.
|
|
|
|
|
|
Masks and Statues
Although African cultures express themselves artistically in a very
wide range of materials and forms, carved wooden statues and masks
have attracted most attention from Western scholars and
connoisseurs. The statues usually represent human ancestors,
reflecting the importance in African culture of family relationships
within lineage-based societies -extended equally to the world of the
dead. Ancestors are perceived as a vital force for the entire group
and a link between the land of the living and the realm of the
spirits. In this sense they are the guarantee of the harmony of the
village. In accordance with the values of African art, which are
neither descriptive nor imitative, a statue does not depict a
particular ancestor. Instead, it reproduces an ideal image that
extols the concept of the life-force while also conforming to a
number of rules: intentional disproportion of the body parts, with
an emphasis on the head and trunk (seats of the life-force) and
sexual organs (symbols of fertility); a static pose hinting at the
possibility of imminent movement - conveyed by the angles of elbows
and knees -and symbolizing the power of the life-force; and the
absence of any suggestion of emotion or expression, which gives the
figure a detached attitude. These constants are more than a sterile
academic exercise. Combined with other formal characteristics of
African statuary - harmony, symmetry, luminosity, verticality, and a
frontal viewpoint - they boost the value of the figures by
highlighting their social and religious significance. Like statues,
masks are a typical form of African plastic art. As an expression of
the moral and religious code within a group's culture, the mask is
an important attribute of ritual acts. It reaffirms the social
principles and enduring beliefs of everyday life and thus ensures
the collective well-being of the community. The terms of form, masks
exhibit a wide range of styles, varying in material, shape, and
decoration and also in the manner in which they are worn or carried.
As a rule, they are made of carved wood but carry additional
decoration in materials of different kinds, some of which may help
to increase their power. The most common type of mask is designed to
be worn over the face; others are helmetlike, veritable pieces of
sculpture that are carried on the head. Whatever the form, their
value in society remains unchanged, given the role that they play in
the most important occasions of collective life. The mask bears
witness to the passing of tribal wisdom to the young in the
initiation rites of puberty and provides moral rules by serving as a
reminder of the traditional customs of the group. In funeral
rituals, it represents the means of dispelling, summoning, and
countering the negative forces released by death. In agricultural
ceremonies, in order to mark the period of social and cosmic
regeneration, the mask celebrates mythical times by recalling tribal
heroes. Within secret societies that have political and judicial
functions, it serves as an instrument of power and social control.
|
|
|
|
Baute seated female figure, ivory Coast, wood and glass beads,
height 37 cm (14 in). Private Collection.
|
Baga nimba shoulder mask. Guinea,
wood and brass, height 140 cm (55 in).
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Toulouse.
|
Songye kifwebe mask, Zaire, wood and plant fibres,
height 55.6 cm
(22 in).
Musee Royal de I'Afrique, Tervuren.
|
|
|
|
Wooden Dogon hermaphrodite, Mali, height 69 cm (27 in).
|
Sculptural Styles of Western Sudan
Not all African cultures have developed the figurative plastic arts
to the same extent. The richest areas are concentrated in the
Atlantic-regions of the continent, from Senegambia down to Angola.
Traditional styles across this area may vary a great deal, with some
being based on geometric designs and others on naturalistic
concepts. The geographical area defined as Western Sudan refers to
the stretch of savanna in West Africa to the south of the Sahara and
to the north of the great forests. It is characterized by a variety
of stylistic tendencies, although there is a general preference for
abstract forms that rely more on a juxtaposition than on an even
succession of parts; this feature is especially evident in the art
of the Dogon. Masks, generally in animal shapes, testify to the
close, primeval relationship between humans and animals. From the
point of view of structure, the mask is regarded as an individual
work, each one endowed with its own meaning, which is directly
associated with the mythical-religious universe. Statues represent
the life-force of ancestors or the mythical pairing of Heaven and
Earth. Geometrical stylization and the skilful balancing of empty
and solid areas heighten the solemnity of the ancestral images,
which constitute the favourite iconographic subject for a large
range of cult objects. The output of the Bamana carvers also
includes masks and statues, but it is less varied in style and form
than the works of the Dogon. Figurative sculpture is marked by a
stiff, powerful style, which contrasts with the flowing
lines of the masks and head-dresses.
|
Wooden Senufo male figure,
ivory Coast,
height 63 cm (24in).
|
|
|
|
|
Bamana female statue, Mali, wood, height 74 cm (29 in).
|
|
The Bamana tyi warra (headdresses worn in
agricultural rituals) usually combine the attributes of a number of
wild animals that can scratch or wound, including the antelope,
aardvark, and lion. The headdresses symbolize Tyi warra, a mythical
being who taught man to cultivate the land. They are worn to
encourage the men as they "wound" and break up the hard soil. To
some extent, the art of the Senufo is similar both to that of the
Sudan and of Guinea.
Huge, flat, helmetlike animal masks are very typical, as are smaller
human-type masks surmounted by a sculpture in the shape of a bird.
Both types of mask are made either of wood or metal, and both are
used in the rituals of the Poro society. Senufo statues usually show
figures standing erect, with a complex hairstyle, an elongated head,
a heart-shaped face, and slightly curving shoulders. Their
monumental style, which is evident equally in smaller works, is
underlined by geometrical reliefs on the chin, breasts, and bellv.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Dogon
horseman, Mali, wood,
height 55 cm (21 in).
|
EQUESTRIAN SCULPTURE
Since ancient times, equestrian subjects have occurred repeatedly in
the artistic traditions of many West African cultures. Horses and
their riders are associated with the exercise of political,
military, or spiritual power. The rider, by reason of his raised
position and the potential speed of the horse's movement, becomes
the emblem of strength and authority. In this sense, although his
standing may vary in different societies, ages, or cultural regions,
the equestrian figure in Africa is the symbol of status and alludes
to the authority of the ancestors or chiefs. Owned exclusively by
the monarch and court, horses, generally mounted by a warrior, were
a central subject in the iconography of the Sudanese empires ever
since their establishment. This harks back to the mythical horsemen
who rode in from the North and who, according to local tradition,
were the founders of new states. Terracotta equestrian sculptures
have been found principally in the area of the Niger river bend and
may be dated from the 13th to the 15th century, when the Mali and
Songhai empires were at their peak. The figures celebrate heroic
leadership, and their static pose suggests the idea of the stability
and permanence of power. The equestrian theme in the area
surrounding the Niger river bend has continued in the contemporary
art of the Dogon, which shows obvious links with the styles from the
past. In Dogon mythology, both horse and rider shared in the
creation of the world. Small wooden or iron equestrian figures are
assembled in shrines in memory of the mythical character called
Nommo, who transformed himself into a horse to haul the arch of
creation onto the earth. Beside or above the animal there is always
a human figure - the rider-deity Amma, the supreme god who is the
universal principle. In Dogon art, therefore, the equestrian theme
refers to the ''original
journey". In terms of form, this idea is conveyed by the relaxed
position of the rider and the treatment of his legs, which are
purely decorative and firmly attached to the saddle. These elements
combine to suggest the mystical nature of the journey and the
impossibility of the rider being unseated. The horses and riders
represented in Dogon art do not follow any rules of naturalism.
Structurally, they are formed from two separate sculptural parts,
thus contravening the almost general rule of African art that links
the human figure and its horse in an ideally unified whole.
This mystical union is nevertheless emphasized in the art of the
Senufo, where the horizontal structure of the horse and the vertical
structure of the rider constitute a sculptural unit. Their spiritual
oneness and the exchange of strength, which passes without
interruption from rider to animal and vice versa, is formally
expressed by the column style structure, in which the vertical lines
of the human figure are followed through to the legs of the horse.
|
|
|
Senufo horse and rider. Senufo equestrian figures primarily
represent the spirits of the forest, considered to be very powerful.
|
Beafada sono insignia of authority, Guinea-Bissau.
Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico Luigi
Pigorini,
Rome.
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sculptural Styles of the Guinea Forest
The number and variety of artistic styles belonging to the groups in
the Ciuinea forest reflects the complex pattern of its different
peoples. In their artistic production, the forest people tend to
renounce abstract forms in favour of a more naturalistic approach:
edges are more rounded, and the geometric styles of the savanna are
replaced by curved lines and closer attention to anatomical
proportions. The Baga, Nalu, and Mende populations, which inhabit
the western part of the area, sculpt mainly very large animal masks.
These are used in female initiation rites or in the secret society
ceremonies that dominate the social life of these groups.
|
Top of dance head-dress with two faces, Boki art, Nigeria, wood,
horn, leather, pigments, and plant fibres, height 54 cm (21 in).
|
The most important works come from the central-eastern part of the
area and are made by the Baule. In addition to masks and statues,
this group produces everyday objects, such as looms, spoons, and
stools, of exceptional quality. The Baule carve large, colourful
animal masks that represent mythological animals symbolizing
masculinity and small, carefully made masks with human features that
are used in funeral ceremonies. Statues generally represent
ancestors or spirits from the hereafter, which are depicted either
standing or seated on a stool. Baule sculpture is noted for its
skilful coordination of proportion, its generous and harmonious
shapes, and its strict formality. This is evident even in the
refined handling of the reliefs and in the elaborate hairstyles and
decorative body marks of the figures. The Yoruba of Nigeria, who
inherited the ancient sculptural tradition of Ife, have produced an
art, still alive today, that draws inspiration from the large
pantheon and expresses the centralized social and political
structure. Masks, associated with secret societies, vary from the
hemispherical, polychrome type that are carved out of softwood in a
highly expressive style, to heavy forms with a stylized skull, often
Janus-faced, used for communicating with the hereafter. The shape of
the eyes and mouth are consistent features in masks and statues and,
despite subtle local variations, immediately indicate the Yoruba
style. The artistic ways of the Igbo, the Ibibio, and the Ekoi - all
ethnic offshoots of the Guinea area - differ somewhat in that they
already anticipate the Bantu styles. Characteristic are the heads
covered with antelope hide and complex hairstyles. Sometimes
Janus-faced, they are used by the Ekoi as dance headdresses in
propitiation rites.
The cultures of the Cameroon grassfields share a common iconography,
notably in the very distinctive artistic products of the Bamun, the
Tikar, and the Bamileke groups. Particularly famous are the wooden
masks with swollen cheeks, large round eyes, and protruding
foreheads, which come in a variety of styles, with either animal or
human features; the latter also show variants in the type of
hairstyle, some of which reproduce the ceremonial head coverings
worn only by chiefs. Typical, too, are the statues and the thrones
with female figures, entirely covered with glass beads that serve to
embellish and to make the work a status symbol. The Bamun also
produce elegant metalwork, including bronze pipes decorated with
animal figures, which are given by the monarch as a sign of honour.
|
|
|
|
|
Baule double mask, Ivory Coast,
wood and pigments,
height 28 cm (11 in).
|
Bangwa figure of the Master of the Rings, northwest grassianos
Cameroon Wood, height 83 cm.
|
Yoruba gelede mask, Nigeria,
wood and pigments.
Institute of Arts,
Detroit.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Art Styles of the Equatorial Forest
The Fang people of Gabon and the neighbouring groups of the Kota and
Kwele between them produce the finest sculpture of the whole
equatorial forest zone. The central theme of Fang iconography is the
image of the ancestor, which bears a heart-shaped face and
"coffee-bean" eyes. The image is placed on top of a box that
contains the bones of a dead person in the belief that it will
capture and preserve the life-force. The rigid forms, the dark,
glossy patina, and the grave expression of the face constitute
formal elements typical of this production. The reliquary figures
created by the Kota perform a similar function. These are made of
wood and decorated with sheets or strips of copper and brass in an
abstract style that presents natural forms in an overall geometrical
context. The typical shape of the face, symmetrically divided by the
line of the nose and balanced by the arches of the eyebrows, is also
found in the female masks of the Fang, as well as in those of the
neighbouring Kwele group.
|
|
|
|
Yoruba pillar in the torm of a horse and warrior rider attributed
to Olowe of lse (died 1938), Nigeria.
|
YORUBA EQUESTRIAN SCULPTURE
Equestrian subjects have been used in Nigerian art ever since the
time of the ancient Igbo-Ukwu and Benin cultures. Here, as in the
old Sudanese empires, horse-riding was regarded as a sign of
prestige and authority - the central part of a complex ceremony
whereby the ruling class asserted its social distance from the rank
and file — as was its exclusive possession of rare and precious
objects. The same equestrian theme can be found today in the Yoruba
tradition and is used to convey the notion of distinction and power.
The rider is usually represented in a stiff upright position, with
reins gathered in the left hand, while the right hand grasps a
symbol of authority. The comparative realism of some of these
sculptures may indicate, at least among earlier examples, that they
were the detailed portraits of illustrious persons or famous
warriors. Although Yoruba sculptures show the horse as an attribute
of the rider, who is always the principal figure of the pair, a
clear ideological link exists between the horseman and his steed: he
embodies symbolically the strength of the animal. The subject of
horsemanship in African art is not necessarily associated with
mythical events or important political and religious persons but is
used for objects that demonstrate the status and wealth of the
owner. The possession of articles carved with equestrian scenes
could confer not only social status on the owner but also increased
authority, as a result of associating with the animal's mystical
nature and enjoying the power derived from the convergence of human
and animal forces. In African cultures, the figure of the horseman
has always been seen as a link with prestigious external cultures,
the values of which are. in complex ways, assimilated and
transformed by local cultures into their own artistic expressions.
|
|
Yoruba divination cup.
The horse and rider Is the main decorative
theme in the production of prophecy cups;
the equestrian theme
symbolizes the status and economic power of the owner. |
|
|
|
Sculptural Styles of the Congo Basin
The area of the Congo river basin is noted for its broad range of
racial groups and a correspondingly wide variety of sculptural
styles. The Kongo people themselves are renowned for their fine
carving, both in stone and wood. The stone sculptures of seated
figures with crossed legs are deservedly famous; they are placed as
guards over the tombs of chiefs and other notable people. Of even
superior artistic quality are the wooden representations of
ancestors, power figures, "fetishes"', and rounded mother figures,
all of which are carved with great attention to anatomical detail,
though often in an asymmetrical pose. Masters of the art of
engraving, the Chokwe have produced sophisticated figures of
sovereigns with elaborate headgear - an element that, as in the
masks, is a symbol of power. The Chokwe also make other types of
ritual mask, characterized by slit eyes set in large, deep orbital
cavities, a wide mouth, and a long, slender nose. The Kuba are
famous for their aristocratic art associated with the divine
monarchy. Their art includes portrait sculptures of sovereigns,
idealized and raised to the rank of divinities, and a series of
prestigious objects, such as bowls, cups, and boxes, in which the
art of geometrical decoration reaches a strikingly high artistic
level. The artistic production of the Songye is substantially
different from other styles in the Congo basin in that the
figurative style shows an almost abstract tendency reminiscent of
Cubist art. The Luba have developed a sophisticated artistic
tradition that embraces at least ten different influential styles.
Statues are rounded, surfaces smooth, and proportions harmonious,
while special features are the prominent forehead, the coffee-bean
eyes, raised scars on the belly, and crosslike headgear over the
back of the neck. The range of sculpted art also comprises everyday
and prestigious objects such as headrests and stools with female
figures, the most celebrated of which are those in the Luba-shankadi
style, with typically flowing hair. A review of the most significant
modern expressive forms of the African cultures of this region
illustrates the regard in which they are held - and why increasingly
numerous and varied studies have been made.
|
|
Master of Bull, stool with female figure.
Luba-Hemba art, Zaire,
late 19th century.
Metropolitan Museum
of Art. New York, |
|
Chokwe mask, Angola,
wood, metal, and plant fibres, height 27 cm
(10 in).
National Museum of African Art. Washington, DC. |
|
|
Kuba effigy of King Bushongo Kot A-Ntshey, Zaire,
wood and plant fibres, height 51.1 cm (20 in).
Musee Royal de I'Afrique Centrale,
Tervuren. |
|
|
|
|
MAGICAL SCULPTURES
A range of ritual objects from the Congo basin - in particular from
the Kongo area - are commonly known as minkisi (sing, nkisi) and
historically labelled "fetishes". They may consist of a collection
of natural objects or may be sculpted from natural materials, such
as wood, shell, or animal horn, into human or animal forms. The
quality of the nkisi is not determined by the type of material -
this merely conducts the spirit forces - but by the "magical
substances" that it contains. The power of the object can be
directed to a variety of purposes, including curing diseases and
ensuring success in hunting and trading. The making of a nkisi is an
operation shared by the sculptor and the nganga (initiated ritual
expert), who attach certain substances that help to harness the
power of the object and metaphorically define the uses to which it
can be put. The magic essences can be either inserted into cavities
in the object - generally in the abdomen or head - or attached to
the outside in projecting containers that are fixed on with resin or
clay. Traditional minkisi figures can be subdivided into three main
categories. The first type are reliquary objects, characterized by
the presence of a mirror to symbolize light and the clearsightedness
of the nganga who is interpreting the event. The second kind are
nail minkisi or minkondi (sing, nkondi) and are imbedded with nails
or sharp iron pieces. They often have a menacing expression and an
arm raised in a threatening gesture. Minkondi, used for mystical
attack and defence, were activated by having nails driven into them
to arouse their "anger". The nganga could then direct this "anger"
against, for example, the author of his client's grievance, by
singing an invocation. The directed "anger" was "engaged" by the
client's words and by his act of licking the bilongo (magical
charge) of the nkondi. The third form of nkisi is the
mpemba, which
consists solely of carvings of mother and child figures for use in
the treatment of gynaecological ailments. The characteristics that
identify the different categories of minkisi — mirror, nails, raised
or weapon-brandishing arm - may also be found together in a single
sculpture.
|
|
|
Kongo (Vili), nkondi, Republic of Congo, wood, iron, plant fibres,
other,
height 112 cm (44 in).
Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico Luigi
Pigorini, Rome.
|
Kongo (Yombe) nkondi, Zaire,
wood and other materials,
height 116.8 cm (46 in).
Institute of Art,
Detroit.
|
Kongo (Yombe) reliquary nkisi, Zaire,
wood and plant fibres, height
28.2 cm (11 in).
Museo Preistorico ed
Etnografico Luigi Pigorini, Rome
|
| |
|
|
Kongo nkondi, Zaire, wood, iron, and shell,
height 53 cm (20 in).
Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico
|
Kongo (Yombe) reliquary nkisi, Zaire,
wood, resin, and mirror, height 31.4 cm (12 in).
Museo Preistorico ed Etnografico Luigi
Pigorini, Rome.
|
|
|
|
|
|
