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The English Landscape Artists
John Constable (1776-1837), and
Richard Parkes Bonington (1802-28)
exhibited with great success at the so-called English Salon of 1824.
Together with Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775-1851), they were
largely responsible for introducing a new approach to landscape
painting that was to have a major influence on European art. They
brought to landscape painting a respect for location, a belief that
the commonplace was worth painting and that changing atmospheric
effects (light and weather) were an essential part of the landscape.
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Turner
In his visionary paintings, J.M.W Turner expressed the majesty of
the "sublime"; he transcended empirical facts in favour of a fluid
world, where the fusion of the four elements generated primordial
energies. The present was dissolved in the past, visual experience
in memory, and the particular became universal, vanishing in a
timeless representation. The Burning of the Houses of Lords and
Commons, October 16, 1834, of which there are two versions, becomes
an apocalyptic vision; the painting of Admiral Nelson's old ship,
The Fighting "Temeraire" Tugged to her Last Berth to he Broken up,
1838, is a sad symbol of human destiny. The artist lashed himself to
a mast of the ship Ariel in order to sample the stresses of snow,
smoke, wind, and water at first hand. He later transformed the
experience into a ghostly interpretation, which appears to be at the
centre of a vortex of cosmic energy, in his painting Snow Storm: a
Steamboat off a Harbour's Mouth (1842). Turner did not confine
himself to a romantic vision of nature. Following his first trip to
Italy in 1819, he experimented with a new form of naturalism in his
landscape painting, which was based on the direct observation of
truth, without resorting to any idealized or stylized form. This
came to fruition in subsequent years, with a number of sketches in
oils in which the artist worked on the themes of sky and sea. Some
of Turner's lively experiments in oils anticipate the works of
Constable, and the light that suffuses his mature works looks
forward to the art of the Impressionists.
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J.M.W Turner
Rain, Steam, and Speed -
The Great Western Railway
1844
oil on canvas
National Gallery, London.
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J.M.W. TURNER: "RAIN, STEAM, AND SPEED-THE GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY"
This painting is part of the Turner bequest, which was made in 1856,
a few years after the artists
death. It consists of over one thousand drawings, watercolours, and
oil paintings, the majority of which are housed in the Tate Gallery,
London. One of Turner's most famous works, Rain, Steam, and Speed -
The Great Western Railway shows a train, bathed in a haze of morning
light, travelling into the foreground over a bridge Just in front
of, and below, the locomotive is a broad arch in which luminous
yellows suggest the reverberation of the water. On the left, in the
distance, are four arches of another bridge, which are delicately
reflected in the gold and blue surface of the river. Between the two
bridges is a boat, and near the centre, on the bank of the Thames,
are the light-coloured shapes of figures dancing.
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The composition is divided by two right-angled axes into
almost equal parts, both horizontally (above and below, sky and
earth) and vertically (left and right). Top and bottom are suffused
with golden light, while left and right share similar features of
depth. In the lower right quarter, dark tones prevail, whereas in
the lower left quarter there are fewer dark and heavy colours, and
the space is dominated by a blend of lighter tints. In both these
quarters. Hues clearly in perspective lead the observer's eye into
the distance and specifically to the light in the centre, which is
the focal point at which everything disintegrates. The perspective,
left to the observer's intuition, relies on the shape of the bridges
and the train to suggest an infinite expanse.
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BEFORE AND AFTER TURNER
With
Albrecht Altdorfer (c.1480-1538), nature became one of the
principal vehicles of expression for the artist attempting to convey
the vastness of the universe. In his Battle of Alexander, the most
original feature is the great depth of the scene. The sun lights up
the clouds, symbolizing the divine and solar qualities of Alexander,
victorious over the enemy. These symbolic qualities of alternating
sunshine and shade would reach a climax in the work of
Turner. His
paintings are comparable to
Claude Lorrain's mythological
compositions; in the paintings of both artists, luminosity spreads
from a central point of the canvas. The traditional view of history
as an ordered progress, which was upheld by academic history
painting, was challenged by Turner's extension of the form to
include representations of nature as chaotic and apocalyptic. His
extraordinary view of nature was a pivotal point in 19th-century
painting, enabling later artists to present nature and rural life as
subjects in their own right. As such. Turner was a strong influence
for the European realists. Non-figurative art of the late-19th and
20th centuries often revived Turner's handling of light and colour.
The play of light on natural forms was integral to the paintings of
the Impressionists and the Post-Impressionists. The abstract
paintings of Paul Klee (1879-1940) reveal a vision of nature set out
in the arrangement of luminous shapes. Mattia Morena (b. 1920)
carries the violence of natural events to extremes with spurts and
blotches of colour.
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Claude Lorrain
Sea Port with the Embarkation of the Queen of
Sheba
1648
National Gallery, London
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Mattia Moreni
Natura viva
1956
Civico Museo dArte Contemporanea,
Milan
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Albrecht Altdorfer
Battle of Alexander
1529
Alte
Pinakothek, Munich
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Constable
Like Turner,
John Constable was primarily a landscape artist, but
while the former was a tireless traveller,
Constable was essentially
a painter of English scenes. His subjects are the places that he
knew and loved - the country landscapes of Suffolk, Dedham,
Salisbury, the Stour, and Hampstead. Throughout his life, he enjoyed
a quiet, open-air existence, firm in the conviction that nature was
the clearest revelation of God's presence. Sheaves of hay, hedges,
trees, and streams
were the impetus for divine contemplation and worship. The poet
Wordsworth - so akin to Constable in many ways - expressed in the
preface to his Lyrical Ballads (1802) why rural scenes were
preferable to those of parkland: "in that situation our elementary
feelings exist in a state of greater simplicity and consequently may
be more accurately contemplated and more forcefully communicated."
This idyllic fusion of man with his surroundings, where "the
passions of man are incorporated with the beautiful and permanent
forms of nature", is the Garden of Eden - a metaphor of purity and
truth contrasting with the industrial reality of the city. In his
small oil studies (as opposed to the large canvases intended for
Academy exhibitions). Constable shunned the conventional
compositional elements - framing devices and central motifs - and
concentrated instead on capturing the changing effects of light and
atmosphere. His studies of clouds between 1821 and 1822 had
precedents in the work of
Alexander Cozens (1717-86), who, in his
depiction of clouds and other natural phenomena, discerned something
mysterious and beyond rational thinking.
Constable went further: in
his studies there is no trace of beginning and end; his depictions
of clouds and rivers seem to spill over the edges of the sheet. They
move rapidly and unexpectedly in every direction, within a space
that seems totally free and infinite.
Constable used chiaroscuro to
dramatic effect, transforming his tranquil rural scenes with the
shadows created by the clouds. His rapid painting technique conveys
immediacy, using touches of pure white spread with the flat brush.
His vibrant brushstrokes fill the canvas with light and a vitality.
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John Constable
The Hay Wain
1821
National Gallery, London
Considered one of Constable's masterpieces,
this work depicts a
gentle rural scene - a favourite of English painters.
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Realism in France
English painting had an impact on 19th-century French art. initially
in the romantic landscapes of
Delacroix (1798— 1863), who saw
Constable's paintings at the Salon of 1824, and in the works of the Barbizon School. There are several strands linking
Constable to
Delacroix and the Impressionists, and equally to
Courbet and
Gericault, whose trip to England in 1820 became a source of
inspiration for realistic paintings, such as The Lime Kiln (c.
1822).
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Corot
Camille Corot (1796-1875) was unrivalled in capturing on canvas the
atmosphere of nature - trees, paths, and water were all enveloped by
some untouchable and indefinable spirit. In due course, the results
of his work would be absorbed into the works of the Impressionists.
His immaterial light uses the relationship of colours to heighten
the sculptural value of his paintings. His "unfinished" sketches
were presented in exhibitions as true, valid, complete works of art.
It was Baudelaire who defended
Corot's landscapes at the Salon of
1845, defining the difference between a "finished'' picture, painted
with careful attention to detail, and a "complete" work, which might
have been only roughly sketched.
Corot visited Italy as a
student from 1825 to 1828, documenting in small sketches and
paintings his first-hand observation of the countryside around Rome,
which he subsequently composed in the studio. The artist had a
natural gift for selecting and simplifying natural detail, which
placed him in the French tradition of
Claude Lorrain. His Breton women seem like
mythical figures, and his later landscapes become ideal, timeless
places inhabited by nymphs, shepherds, and gods. At the same time,
nature in this guise was also understood by the artist in terms of
measurable proportions, which anticipated the "geometrical''
landscapes of Paul Cezanne.
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JEAN-BAPTISTE-CAMILLE COROT
"THE WOMAN IN BLUE"
1874
Musee du Louvre, Paris.
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see collection:
Camille Corot |
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This is one of the last paintings by Corot, who died at the age of
79 in 1875. It is a full-length portrait of a young woman at a
table, her elbow resting on a piece of clothing, hand on chin. In
her other hand she is holding a folded fan. She wears an elaborate
blue dress in the style of the age, sleeveless, with a low neckline,
and a tight-fitting bodice. The woman is seen almost in profile: the
lower part of the body is a three-quarter view from the back, while
her face is turned slightly towards the observer. Two landscape
pictures in the background and a fairly summary treatment of the
rest of the room complete the scene. This work is not the most
famous of Corot's paintings, nor at the time the most appreciated, as
he was an artist who usually-concentrated on contemplative
landscapes. It is. however, representative of the work that
Corot
produced, above all, for himself: in situ landscape sketches and
portraits, particularly of women. Although tense and severe, the
picture still captures some intimate grace.
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Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot
(Encyclopaedia Britannica)
born July 16, 1796, Paris, France
died February 22, 1875, Paris
in full Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot French painter, noted primarily
for his landscapes, who inspired and tosome extent anticipated the
landscape painting of the Impressionists. His oil sketches,
remarkable for their technical freedomand clear colour, have come to
be as highly regarded as the finished pictures that were based upon
them.
Early life and career
Corot was born of prosperous bourgeois parents. His mother, who was
Swiss-born, had a fashionable milliner's shop, whichCorot's father—a
draper by trade—helped manage. Camille was a poor scholar and even
less adept when he tried to follow his father's trade. Finally, at
age 25, he was given a small allowance by his father and allowed to
become what he had always dreamed of being: a painter.
Like every young French artist, Corot spent much time studying the
paintings in the Louvre, and he had some private instruction from
Achille-Etna Michallon and Jean-Victor Bertin, both followers of the
Neoclassical landscape painter Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes. From
the beginning, however, Corot preferred to sit outdoors, rather than
in studios, sketching what he saw and learning by firsthand
experience.
In the autumn of 1825 Corot went to Rome, and the three years that
he spent there were the most influential of his life.He painted the
city and the Campagna, the countryside around Rome; he made a trip
to Naples and Ischia; and he returned to Paris by way of Venice. He
was very happy. He told a friend in August 1826: “All I really want
to do in life…is to paint landscapes. This firm resolve will stop me
forming any serious attachments. That is to say, I shall not get
married.” He was as good as his word and never married. Romantic
companionship played no part in his life, which was entirely devoted
to painting.
Back in France, Corot settled into a routine to which he kept for
the whole of his life. He always spent the spring and summer months
painting outside, making small oil sketches and drawings from
nature. He acquired a mastery of tonal relationships that formed the
basis of his art, for the balance and gradation of light and dark
tones was always more important to him than the choice of colour. In
the winter Corot would retire to his Paris studio to work on some
much larger pictures, which he liked to have ready for exhibition
atthe annual Salon when it opened in May.
His first important work, The Bridge at Narni, was shown at the
Paris Salon in 1827, when he was still in Italy. In 1833 he
exhibited a large landscape of the forest of Fontainebleau, which
was awarded a second-class medal: this gave Corot the right to show
his pictures without submission to the jury for their approval.
From May to October of 1834 Corot made his second visit to Italy. He
painted views of Volterra, Florence, Pisa, Genoa, Venice, and the
Italian lake district. He collected enough material in small
sketches to last him the rest of his life, although he returned to
Italy briefly in the summer of 1843, for the last time.
When he grew older, Corot moved around less. In 1836, however, he
made important trips to Avignon and the south of France; he went to
Switzerland in 1842 and on several other occasions, to The
Netherlands in 1854, and to London in1862. His favourite regions of
France were the forest of Fontainebleau, Brittany, the Normandy
coast, his family property at Ville-d'Avray near Paris, and, later
in life, Arras and Douai—in the north of France—where close friends
lived.
Throughout his life Corot liked occasionally to paint
straightforward topographical landscapes, depicting buildings such
as the cathedral at Chartres (1830) or the belfry at Douai (1871)
exactly as they appeared to him. But the basic division in his work
was between the sketch made from nature—small, direct,
spontaneous—and the large, finished picture done for the Salon. In
the early 19th century the sketch was thought to be unsuitable for
public exhibition,and there were only a few connoisseur collectors
who would buy such pictures. The finished landscapes were preferred.
These were considered even more dignified if they included a few
small figures who could be identified with the heroic characters of
legend, literature, or the Bible. Thus, Corot exhibited pictures
with such titles as Hagar in the Wilderness (Salon of 1835), Diana
Surprised by Actaeon (Salon of 1836), Homer and the Shepherds (Salon
of 1845), and Christ in the Garden of Olives (Salon of 1849).
As landscape was his major interest, Corot used figures in his work
in an incidental manner, much as they were used in the work of the
17th-century painter Claude Lorrain. In the 1860s Corot invented a
new kind of landscape, the Souvenirs, in which he made compositions
out of standardized elements—usually a lake with diaphanoustrees
painted in an overall silvery tonality—to evoke a mood of gentle
melancholy. At the end of his life, he also painted a number of
portraits and figure studies, especially of young women posed in his
studio holding a flower or a musical instrument or looking at a
landscape on the easel. These more private pictures Corot almost
never exhibited.
During the 1830s Corot showed regularly at the Paris Salon and had
some critical success. Yet he sold very few pictures and was glad of
his father's allowance. Then, in 1840, the state purchased one of
his works, The Little Shepherd, and, five years later, the poet and
art critic Charles Baudelaire could write in his review of the 1845
Salon that “Corot standsat the head of the modern school of
landscape.” In 1846 he was made a member of the Legion of Honour,
and, when his father died, in 1847, Corot was able to feel that he
had justified the family's support of his ambition to be a painter.
Years of success
By the 1850s collectors and dealers were eagerly seeking hispictures,
and Corot henceforth had no material worries. He went on sending big
pictures to the Salons, where they fetched high prices. At the 1855
Paris Universal Exposition he was awarded a first-class medal for
painting, and EmperorNapoleon III bought a picture from him. In 1867
he was promoted to being an officer of the Legion of Honour.
Although he was a prolific artist and painted more than 3,000
pictures, demand outran supply, and Corot was much imitated and
faked. During his lifetime, Corot achieved popularity largely
through his later, self-consciously poetic landscapes, which were
characterized by sensitive tonal effects and a delicate range of
silvery colours. The portraits and figure studies of the last 20
years of Corot's life, such as The Studio (several versions, c.
1865) and The Pearl (1868–70), bear witness to Corot's innate
classicism and his absolute mastery of tonal painting. In the 20th
century, appreciation of Corot shifted to show a marked preference
for the earlier, more naturalistic sketches over these later ones.
Success made little difference to Corot, who was a man of extremely
conservative habits. He always worked very hard because he loved his
art, but this left him little time for other things. He liked to
talk about the harmonies of his painting, and his late work in
particular—both portraiture and landscape—aspires to the qualities
of music. He kept the modern world firmly out of his pictures: there
is never a sign of the vast railway network that covered France in
his lifetime or of the industrial and commercial development that
transformed the country.
Corot enjoyed the company of fellow painters and was a close friend
of the Barbizon group of artists, especially Jean-François Millet,
Théodore Rousseau, and Charles-François Daubigny. He used his money
to give unostentatious help to less successful friends, such as the
caricaturist Honoré Daumier. Without going out of his way to support
them in public, Corot was sympathetic to younger painters. He gave
lessons to the later Impressionists CamillePissarro and Berthe
Morisot and had many pupils and disciples. “Papa Corot” was
universally loved for his unfailing kindness and generosity during
his last years.
Assessment
Corot's place in the history of 19th-century painting is an assured
one. When he started painting, the landscape sketch was regarded
primarily as raw material for more considered work and was of no
great artistic consequence in itself. Corot was one of the first to
show that the sketch had qualities of vitality and spontaneity, a
basic truth to nature that a more finished picture lacked. At the
time of his death the sketch had triumphed, and any artificiality or
contrivance in landscape painting was regarded with suspicion. Corot
had helped to prepare the way for the Impressionist landscape
painters, who learned much from him and looked upon him with respect
and veneration.
Sir Alan Bowness
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see collection:
Jean-Francois
Millet
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Millet
Jean-Francois Millet (1814-75) was the first artist to choose the
theme of rural life as the subject for his paintings. He depicted
peasants in large scenes, positioning them in isolated groups in the
foreground. They are austere figures with great dramatic presence
even though their facial features are hidden.
Millet's peasants do
not have the crudeness of those in
Courbet's works: the attitudes of
the sombre figures, softened by the evening light, are
self-absorbed, tinged with melancholy, and somehow timeless. Their
shapes are simple and rendered with broad strokes and harmoniously
blended colours. These peasants do not belong to a given region but
take on a wider significance, becoming representative of humankind's
dependence on the land. This realism, with all its social and
humanitarian implications, was that of a deeply romantic and
religious individual whose interest in art went back to childhood.
Millet's earlv davs were spent in a village in Normandy, in an
enclosed, sombre environment, supervised by a pious priest, who
based his lessons on the Bible and Virgil's Eclogues. His future
path became clear in 1849, when he met the painters of the Barbizon
School following an apprenticeship in the Paris studio of Paul
Delaroche. There, he had made a start with paintings of mythological
subjects in a Romantic vein. Millet never emulated the heroic,
revolutionary style of Courbet, but instead retained a traditional
element in his compositions, investing his ordinary subjects with
poise and nobility. From his time in Barbizon, he painted works from
memory, transcending any specific reference to reality.
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Jean-Francois Millet
The Gleaners
1857
Musee d'Orsay, Paris
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Jean-Francois Millet
The Sower
1850
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RUSTIC LIFE
Millet's
The Sower became the symbol of man at work. The direct and
close bond with nature was reflected in the mood and tone — the
weary rhythm of everyday toil in a dull, oppressive light.
Meanwhile, Jules Breton (1827-1906) lived in a provincial rural
community where the pattern of daily life was tied in with the
observances of the Church.
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Jules Breton
The Blessing of the Wheat, Artois
1857
Musee
d'Orsay, Paris
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Daumier
Honore Daumier (1808-79) began as a designer and lithographer with
the satirical weekly La Silhouette. He then contributed to the
Magazine de la Caricature, edited by Aubert, and the weekly
La
Caricature of Charles Philippon, who also founded Charivari, in
which Daumier published a series of biting caricatures of political
and social celebrities. The artist drew on the Parisian working
class for inspiration in his own "Human Comedy" in an inspired blend
of the real and the visionary. He made almost 4,000 lithographs
(including 100 in the celebrated "Robert Macaire" series) and turned
to painting in his later years. He successfully combined the popular
language of the lithograph (which owed much to English prints of
caricatures and contemporary life) and the refinement of late
Romantic painting, which was self-taught.
Daumier documented
workers' conditions, women's struggle for emancipation, the emergent
middle class, and the professional ranks of judges, lawyers, and
doctors. He conveyed a sense of human suffering through his images
of Christ, Don Quixote's adventures, and the actors of the commedia
dell'arte.
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see collection:
Honore Daumier |
Honore Daumier
The Washerwoman
1863
Musee d'Orsay, Paris
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COURBET
The catalogue compiled by Gustave Courbet for the exhibition at the
Pavilion du Realisme in 1855 contained the famous "Manifesto of
Realism", outlining the artistic theories of the man who would be
known as the master of 19th-century European Realism.
Courbet's
defiant and unconventional approach was far removed from the
nostalgia for a lost tradition, dreamed of by the Pre-Raphaelites,
or the historical painting of the pompiers (the derogatory term
given to French academic painters).
Courbet's art was concrete,
almost tangible, even in the handling of the paint, which was laid
on with a spatula rather than a brush, in what he described as ''a
wholly physical language". In A Burial at Ornans (1849-50), familiar
provincial folk are depicted life-size, raising regional painting to
the level of historical art. The subject is contemporary life, the
actual moment of a burial in a stark, gloomy landscape that exudes
the smell of the soil. It is a secular, anti-heroic painting, unlike
those of Jean-Pierre-Alexandre Antigna (1817-78), in which the
people are seen to struggle in a theatrical and melodramatic manner
against a hostile fate. This canvas was the forerunner of other
monumental pictures inspired by the rural events and customs of
Courbet's native Franche-Comte. In
The Stone-breakers (1849,
destroyed during World War II), he renounced traditional methods of
figured painting, both in his choice of subjects and the way he
represented them. Unlike Millet's figures in
The Gleaners, the
protagonists in Courbet's painting are not invested with dignity and
monumentality (for which reason
Millet's painting was more warmly
received by critics and the public than
Courbet's). The Painters
Studio - A Real Allegory Summing Up Seven Years of my Artistic and
Moral Life (1854-55) was the centrepiece of
Courbet's exhibition in
the Pavilion du Realisme, In it, he presents himself as the
artist-hero, seated in the middle of his studio, paint-brush poised
over a canvas of a landscape. Assembled around him are all the
significant influences of his life. In a letter to Champfleury,
Courbet wrote that the people on his right are "friends,
fellow-workers and art lovers... those who live on life" and on his
left is "the world of the commonplace... the exploiters, the
exploited, those who live on death". The portraits on the right are
identifiable - among them are Champfleury and Baudelaire -but we are
left to speculate on the identity and meaning of the characters on
the left. Courbet is best-known for his figure paintings, but he was
also a prolific painter of landscapes. For him, nature was a direct
sensation; it had substance and physical consistency, and was modelled by light, which is no accidental element but a palpable
structure of reality itself.
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GUSTAVE COURBET
"A BURIAL AT ORNANS"
1849-50
Musee d'Orsay, Paris.
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The painting shows the final part of a Catholic funeral ceremony
- the lowering of the coffin into a grave at the cemetery of Ornans
in the Franche-Comte, where
Courbet was born in 1819.
With such large dimensions, the painter was able to portray more
than fifty life-size figures. In the centre foreground is part of
the empty hole; on the left are the priest, the pallbearers, and the
coffin covered with a white drape; behind the grave are officials;
on the right are female mourners, kept separate from the men; and,
in the foreground, is a dog.
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Courbet's finely composed painting is made up of two identical
rectangles, which are very close to squares. In the left half, we
see the officiating priest, dressed in black robes and reading the
words of the liturgy. There are also two altar boys, a clergyman
carrying the processional cross, and four pallbearers in black,
with the bands for lowering the coffin over their shoulders.
Between them, the coffin is covered by a white drape with black
crossed bones, over which is placed a red mat. Behind the grave,
there is a man bent on one knee, two men in gowns and red
toques, and a group of men. The women stand to the right. Above
the figures, beyond the ideal line of the horizon, extends the
broad landscape of green hills and rocks. If vertical lines were
drawn through the centre of the composition and through the two
separate rectangles, it would be possible to trace the base of
an imaginary triangle, its apex in the grave.
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 Gustave Courbet
Self-Portrait with Upraised Arm
1840
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THE SELF-PORTRAIT
During this period, artists became heroic figures of their times,
and chose to represent themselves and their friends and colleagues
in an imaginative range of poses.
Gustave Courbet compared himself
to
Rembrandt in the depiction of his own likeness. His
self-portraits range from the sharp, egocentric youth, absorbed in
self-praise, to the final expression of his agony through the image
of a trout in its death throes. More than a sensitive still life,
this work is a tragic self-portrait of an artist who had suffered
repeated disappointment: firstly, in the fall of the Paris Commune,
secondly, in his imprisonment, and, finally, in his eventual exile
to Switzerland.
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Gustave Courbet
Courbet with a Black Dog
1844
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see collection:
Gustave Courbet
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 Gustave Courbet
Self-Portrait
1847
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Gustave Courbet
Self-Portrait
1848-49
Musee Fabre, Montpellier
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Gustave Courbet
Self-Portrait
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Gustave Courbet
The Meeting or ''Bonjour Monsieur Courbet"
1854
Musee Fabre, Montpellier France.
The artist depicts himself meeting
the art collector, and purchaser of the painting, Alfred Bruyas.
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see collections:
Camille Corot
Jean-Francois Millet
Jules Breton
Honore Daumier
Gustave Courbet
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