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CALLIGRAPHY
Calligraphy has always been one of the most important art forms in
China and the different styles have been classified rigorously since
ancient times. Within this medium, the artist traditionally
expressed the energies of the natural world by means of gestures:
the pen acted as an extension of the human body, providing the
instrument through which these forces could be released. The
formulation of a single character went beyond its mere graphic
meaning, transforming it into a pure, self-sufficient entity. It was
the changli, or constant principle inherent in all natural beings,
that gave the artist the instantaneous ability to create this.
Fundamental to the art of calligraphy is the belief that artistic
expression is an immediate, apparently spontaneous act, although in
reality it entails much thought and inner preparation. This way of
thinking was nurtured and influenced by chan Buddhism (Zen in
Japanese), with its principle of illumination and by the ancient
Taoist theories concerning the intuitive comprehension of the
essence of the perceptible world. There is perhaps no other art that
expresses so freely the inner feelings of the artist and yet remains
contained within such strict rules.
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Quotation from an essay by
Dong Qichang (1555-1636), ink
on paper. |
Detail of poetry by Mi Fu (1052-1108),
ink on silk |
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Second Ode of Red Cliff by Zhao Mengfu |
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Carved lacquer vase with floral decoration,
c. 1403-24.
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CHINESE LACQUERWARE
Lacquer is a resin extracted from the tree Rhus verniciflua and is
used as a preservative to cover materials such as wood or bamboo. It
can be applied in an almost limitless number of coats, a lengthy
process, as each coat has to dry slowly in a humid atmosphere before
another can be applied. Used since the Shang era, lacquer was
already widely favoured during the Han dynasty in the production of
beautifully painteci objects, such as those found in the tomb of the
marchioness of Dai at Mawangdui. Carved lacquerware was produced
from the 12th century onwards. This form was most highly developed
during the Yuan and Ming periods and was to gain special recognition
in the 18th century during the reign of the emperor Qianlong
(1736-95). As the piece is carved, the varying shades of each layer
of lacquer are revealed. Geometrical and floral motifs were most
common in this work, but there were also landscapes and scenes of
everyday life in gardens and pavilions. As on porcelain objects, the
dragon also featured frequently.
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Carved lacquer box, dating from 1272-1368. |
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DECORATIVE MOTIFS
The most common subjects in the decoration of porcelain, textiles,
lacquer and cloisonne are flowers, fruit, real and mythical birds
and animals, and, more rarely, landscape. The designs are found in
various combinations that symbolize messages of good fortune or
traditional and familiar Chinese proverbs. The decorated surface is
often broken up into separate areas of different designs, none of
which is necessarily connected to the next. In works of art and on
craft objects, the dragon (long in Chinese) is often encountered.
The appearance of this composite creature, sometimes winged with a
snakelike body covered with scales and hooked claws, was a sign of
good luck. The emblem of power and dignity in historic times, it
later came to represent the country itself. The feminine counterpart
of the dragon, also considered to bring good fortune and symbolizing
the empress, is the phoenix (feng or fenghuang) - a fabulous winged
creature that embodies all the virtues of the peacock, the crane,
and the pheasant. The most common decorative flowers are the lotus,
the peony, the chrysanthemum, and cherry blossom - the "flowers of
the four seasons". Each symbolizes a particular virtue and may be
used singly or in a group.
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Round cloisonne box, with lotus motifs, 1450-56.
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Small water container,
blue-and-white porcelain,
Choson
dynasty, 15th-century.
National Museum, Seoul.
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Korean Art of the Yi Dynasties
Despite the transfer of the capital city to Seoul in 1394, the
invention of the Korean alphabet (1443), and the official
repudiation of Buddhism in favour of neo-Confucianism, landscape
painting in the 15th century was still influenced by the Chinese
traditions of the northern Song. However, it was not long before the
so-called Li-Kuo manner became modified by the adoption of styles
that reflected the characteristics of the Wu school (of southern
Song derivation) of Ming China. The representation of animals and
bamboos was accomplished with vigorous, decisive brushstrokes and a
strong colour contrast that placed emphasis on height rather than
depth. The invasions of the Japanese in 1592 and the Manchus of the
Qing Dynasty in 1627 provoked a patriotic reawakening and was the
source of a new artistic wave that rejected the Chinese traditions.
The realistic painting of Chong Son (1676-1759) was followed by that
of the Kim Hong-do genre (1745-c. 1814), which depicted scenes of
peasants and craftsmen. Today, these paintings provide a valuable
source of information about the customs, clothing, and native
landscape of the time.
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Panels from Landscapes of the Four Seasons, ink and
colour on silk, 35.2 x 28.5 cm (14 x 1VA in), Choson dynasty, 15th
century National Museum of Art, Seoul. Attributed to Ahn Kyon, this work
shows the influence of the Zhe school and Ming art, though the strong,
fragmentary design reveals the native style. |
KOREAN PAINTING OF THE YI DYNASTIES
The adoption of Confucianism as official doctrine during the Choson
dynasty (1392-1910) had a powerful impact on Buddhist painting.
Although Buddhism continued to be popular for some time, it never
again enjoyed royal favour and did not regain the position of
artistic predominance it had possessed during the Koryo period.
Despite the fact that they were undoubtedly familiar with the
paintings of the Chinese court artists still working in the southern
Song style, Korean painters of the 16th century developed their own
landscape style, concentrating on wide views rather than foreground
subjects. The broad landscapes, punctuated by minute details. had an
impact on Japanese ink painting of the Muromachi period (1338-1573).
The long pictorial tradition of the Zhe school, which had moulded
many court artists in the early Ming period, was certainly important
to artists such as Kang Hui-an (1419-64). The strong, confident ink
strokes, the fine treatment of rocks and precipices, and the sharp
contrast between the images and the pale background, as used in Sage
Resting on a Rock, are good examples of what came to be defined as
the style of the Korean Zhe school. The appearance of a new style,
known as chingjong sansu (realistic landscape), pioneered by Chong
Son (1676-1759), marked the transition towards a more overtly
nationalistic form of painting. Another genre much to Korean taste
was that of Sin Yun-bok (mid-13th century) and of Kim Hong-do
(1745-c. 1814), who endeavoured to portray the upper and working
classes respectively. The work of Kim Tu-ryang (1696-1763)
likewise stemmed from direct observation, according to a practice
that was probably derived from the siftai movement (pragmatic school
of thought). One pictorial form succeeded another throughout the
18th and 19th centuries, with such artists as Kim Chong-hui
(1786—1857) and Hong Se-sop ( 1832-84) helping to continue the
development of a truly indigenous style.
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