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From Late Antiquity to the
Romanesque
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The Early Christians and their
Art
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As iconography became an increasingly
powerful tool for those religions
with creeds based on the idea of salvation, so imperial images became more
important for inspiration. Christians in particular displayed conspicuous
skill
in placing monotheism within the classical tradition, and they also
assimilated
barbarian traditions to influence the medieval artistic expression.
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The Christians differed from the religious sects of the Jewish people
- the Sadducees, the Pharisees, the Essenes, and the Qumran community
-in three ways. Firstly they believed that the Scriptures were completed
with the coming of the Messiah. Secondly they accepted women as
participants in common prayer. Thirdly they followed the policy of
attempting to convert Gentiles. Within the multicultural arena of the
Roman Empire, they found points of reference with other religious
beliefs: the monotheism of the Stoics, who believed in the spiritual
majesty of the Greek God Zeus; the individual salvation promised by the
mysteries of Demeter and Dionvsus, whose symbols - ears of corn and wine
- came to indicate the bread and wine of the Eucharist; the cult of Isis
(a similar figure to Mary), the mother who offers comfort, represented
on her throne with the young Harpocrates; and spiritual motifs in Orphic
and Pythagorean practices. It was to take centuries, however, before
this adaptable religion found favour in a wider realm.
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Adoration of the Magi,
detail from the silver reliquary
of the Saints Celsus and Nazarius,
fourth century.
Museo del Tesoro del Duomo, Milan
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MITHRAS
The sepulchre of Antiochus I of Commagene (34bc) on the peak of Nemrud
Dagh in Turkey depicts the Persian god Mithras with Greek and Hindu
divinities. The meeting of these cultures gave birth to an elaborate
initiation rite that established itself in the imperial age. It tied in
well with the Syrian cult of the Sun God, which the emperor Aurelian had
assumed as the official state religion, inaugurating the grandiose
Temple of the Unconquered Sun on the Quirinal (ad274), one of the seven
hills of Rome. Diocletian considered Mithras to be the "protector of the
empire". The mysteries of Mithraism were enacted in underground crypts,
representing the grotto (symbol of the heavenly vault) where the god had
been born from the rock (emblem of the earth). However, the exclusion of
women deprived the cult of the popular support that was afforded to the
Christian faith. This involvement of the whole family unit laid the
foundation of the social system on which the success of the religion
ultimately depended. Though in Western Europe the name of Mithras can
now only be found buried beneath the churches and in shrines, the name
lives on in the branches of Zoroastrianism in Iran and India.
Present-day knowledge helps to provide an astrological explanation for
the animals that appear in the paintings and carvings of many Mithraic
shrines featuring the sacrifice of the Bull. The Crow. Scorpion. Snake.
Lion, and Dog all represent constellations in depictions of the night
sky. together with the personifications of the Sun and the Moon. In the
fresco pictured here, Mithras is flanked by Cautes and Cautopates, whose
torches - symbols of life and death - are raised and lowered
respectively.
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Fresco from the Shrine of Mithras, Marino,
Rome, third century |
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Wall mosaic showing
Christ with a radiating crown,
Mausoleum of the Julii,
Vatican Tombs.
Vatican City, third to fourth century |
The Christians in the Roman Empire
In ad35, shortly after the crucifixion of Jesus, the Emperor
Tiberius (ruled ad 14-37) ordered the senate to recognize
Christianity. The assembly opposed it, and the senatorial decree
prohibiting the cult - non licet esse cbristianos -
initiated a campaign of persecution. It was during the reign of
Claudius (41-54), that the apostle Peter went to Rome. One of his
letters in later years confirmed the decision of Claudius' successor
Nero (54-68) to incriminate the Christians for "illicit
superstition" prior to the fire in ad64. Flavius Clemens, cousin of
the emperor Domitian (81-96), was the first Christian to become
consul, but in ad95 he was put to death for being guilty of and
Trajan (98-117) tried to find a compromise between the protective
policies of his predecessor and the oppressive designs of Domitian.
He put a stop to persecution but ordered action to be taken against
anyone who. when called before the court, refused to offer sacrifice
to the gods. Hadrian (117-138) decreed that Christians should be
punished only if they actually broke the law. Under Marcus Aurelius
(161-180), the situation was again ambiguous. Montanist heretics,
opposed to the belief that Jesus Christ was the Son of God, damaged
temples and statues of divinities, but the emperor failed to
distinguish between this radical anarchy and the behaviour of the
Christian majority. They were accused in general of "outright
opposition". The emperor Commodus (180-192) generally assimilated
the Christians into the empire. During his rule, for example,
underground cemeteries were established. There was keen interest in
religious matters at the court of Septimus Severus (193-211), and
the obsession of the empress Julia Domna with the cult of the Sun
God struck a monotheistic note. There was an image of Jesus in the
lararium (a shrine to the spirits protecting a place) of Alexander
Severus. Christians now began to participate in political life, and
the duty of administering the catacombs was given to organized
funeral associations. In the early stages of Christian decorative
art. the tone was one of harsh dogmatism, as exemplified in the
writings of Tertullian (active between 197 and 220). and symbolism
revolved around the concepts of holiness and salvation. Motifs were
based on narrative episodes from the Old and New Testaments. Philip
the Arabian (244-249) was arguably the first Christian emperor, and
sarcophagi inspired by the new faith are dated to his rule. Images
of philosophers and scholars represented the intellectual qualities
of the dead, and agricultural and pastoral scenes derived from
Virgil were interpreted as a vision of paradise. Gradually, the
Hellenistic tradition was abandoned. In sculpture, incorporeal forms
were lost in space and shadow, with emphasis instead on the
symbolism of a few selected objects. The sarcophagus of the Via
Salaria (Museo Pio Cristiano) blends the rustic motif of rams with
groups of people reading, two disciples, and the deceased's wife
with her servants. In the centre is the Good Shepherd, allegory of
Christ. The increasing power of Christianity troubled its opponents.
Decius (249-251) ordered all citizens to worship the gods, and, in
an empire scourged by pestilence and famine, Valerian (253-260)
renewed general persecution. He issued edicts against the clergy in
an attempt to dismantle the entire structure of the Church.
Decorative art was influenced by the thinking of some of the
individuals who were subjected to persecution: Cyprian of Carthage,
bishop and martyr, a moralist who developed the philosophy (based on
Lucretius) of a world that had grown old and tired, and Novatian.
who initiated theological speculation. The authority of the bishops,
recognized by Valerian, provided an excuse for Gallienus (260-268)
to revoke the notion of the primacy of the bishop of Rome and
establish the jurisdictional rights of individual Christian
communities. Christianity was the religio licita ("permitted
religion") and Christian officials were relieved of the obligation
to worship idols. In painting, the subject of salvation was
supplemented by deeper issues. Extreme human conditions were
examined in the disobedience of Adam and Eve, the patience of Job,
and the dedication of Abraham. The principle of a guiding providence
was celebrated in the story of David armed with a sling, Tobias with
the fish that restored his father's sight, and Jonah rescued from
the belly of the whale and spared to convert the city of Nineveh.
The last is the only prophet with whom Christ compares himself and
his mission during his sermons (Matthew 12: 39-41). He is depicted
as a teacher, as well as a central figure in the ranks of the
apostles.
Diocletian (284-305) returned to the original belief in the sacred
nature of the empire and excluded Christians from the army in ad297.
Galerius (305-311) extended Valerian's policy of extermination,
destroying churches, burning scriptures, and convicting adherents.
In ad306, peace returned to Italy with Maxentius and to the western
provinces with Constantine (306-337). who defeated Maxentius in
ad312, bearing the monogram of Christ on his soldiers' shields. The
following year, he issued the edict of tolerance. The church soon
made an impact on cities with its new ceremonial buildings,
climaxing with the building of St Peter's basilica (ad3I9-24).
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Relief of St Peter and St Paul,
fourth to fifth century.
Museo Paleocristiano
Nazionale, Aquileia
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Christ !he Teacher and Shepherd of a Flock,
fresco, mid-third century.
Ipogeo
degli Aureli, Rome
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EARLY CHRISTIAN FINDINGS
Recently, strange signs and symbols testifying to the
message of the apostles have come to light. A fragment of
papyrus relating to St Mark's Gospel, found in the caves of
Qumran, dates from before ad68, and extracts of St Matthew's
Gospel (Oxford) date from about ad60. The novel Satyncon
contains a satirical account of the facts related by St
Mark. The story, set just outside Naples and Pozzuoli, was
written by a companion of Nero, Gaius Petronius, who was
driven to suicide in ad65 by the hostility of Tigellinus, In
the region of Campania other pieces of evidence precede the
eruption of Vesuvius in ad79. The "magic square" of Pompeii
conceals the words Pater noster, while at Oplontis, outside
Naples, there is a reference to the persecution of the
Christians in the villa of Nero's wife Poppaea, who died in
ad65 In a graffito reading mnesthei Beryllos ("Berillus,
take care!"), the letter "Rho" has a horizontal line across
it, making it the oldest known chrismon - monogram of Christ
- ever found (a letter from Paul in ad63 indicates that
there were Christians in court). The writer of the graffiti
is warning Nero's secretary that someone is aware of his
spiritual leanings and is plotting his downfall.
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Ancient graffiti with the monogram of Christ inserted in the
word "Beryllos", the name of Nero's secretary. It was found in
the Villa of Poppaea at Oplontis, outside Naples
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THE CATACOMBS
Peter and Paul were buried after their martyrdom in the communal
necropolises situated respectively in the Via Cornelia on the
Vatican Hill and on the Ostiense. So too were other Christians until
the donations of land by adherents of the faith led to the building
of coemeteria or "resting places", where the deceased could
await resurrection. In the Middle Ages, the name "catacombs",
derived from a sign under the basilica of San Sebastiano on the
Appian Way, was applied to these underground cemeteries. More than
60 such catacombs were built in locations around Rome, each
consisting of mile upon mile of galleries in tufa, a form of
limestone. Starting from old caves or wells, they descended to a
depth of up to five levels. Branching off the galleries were
innumerable burial niches (loculi), arched recesses (arcosolia),
and chapels to accommodate the more important tombs. In the time of
Theodosius, the diggers who carried out the work belonged to an
organization and handled the sale of plots.
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Gallery with burial niches and arched recesses,
first level of the Priscilla catacombs, Rome,
second to third century |
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THE SARCOPHAGUS OF JUNIUS BASSUS
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The Sarcophagus of Jumus Bassus. Treasury of St Peters, Vatican City
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Detail from the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus.
Treasury of St Peter's, Vatican City |
Junius Bassus, prefect of Rome, had recently been
converted when he died in ad359. His sarcophagus was a
masterpiece of technique and inventiveness. Its subject
matter and style spanned two ages, blending elements of both
classical and Christian art. The work was arranged on two
layers, the lower level with arched sections and the upper
with lintels. The entry of Christ into Jerusalem mirrors the
arrival of the emperors. The three central scenes of the
upper panel are static and solemn, in contrast to the
narrative vivacity of the others: this recalls the contrast
between the symbolic appearances of the emperor and the
depiction of the military activities on the column of Marcus
Aurelius. In the centre, the sovereignty of Christ is
supported by the personification of Heaven. The arrest of
Peter (on the left) is placed on the same footing as that of
Jesus (on the right), in consideration of the fact that St
Peter's basilica was chosen as the site for the monument.
The hand of God appears in the upper left corner to halt
Abraham as he prepares to sacrifice his son: the direction
of the gesture makes a diagonal line across the sculpted
surface, which concludes with Paul being led to his
martyrdom, facing outward like Abraham. The two extremes of
the other diagonal, however, arrive at the seated,
inward-facing figures of Pilate (above), and Job (below). On
one side of Christ's entry the Fall of Man is shown, and
Daniel in the lions' den is shown on the other.
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Gilded base of a glass vase inserted into the plaster of a burial
niche, catacombs of Panfilo, Rome, third century. Here, Saint Agnes is
depicted between with columns, with doves, stars, and scrolls |
POPULAR ART OF THE CATACOMB
In order to avoid an elitist form of decoration, the burial niches
of the catacombs developed an artistic style that was neither
technically nor economically demanding. Besides the paintings on the
ceilings and walls, the rectangular sepulchres, hemmed in by areas
of marble and brick, provided a great opportunity for artistic
experimentation. Here, the ideas of the faithful were concentrated
within a confined space, surrounded by the natural frame of the tufa.
Initially, the space was left undecorated, as was customary in the
expectation of the imminent return of Christ. But attention to the
deceased persons increased as hope for the reincarnation faded. In
some cases, the name of the person was inscribed in the mortar. The
illiterate tried to reproduce the evocative and protective value of
inscriptions by using sequences of enigmatic signs. Articles buried
in the tomb were chosen not so much as comfort for the deceased but
as souvenirs of past lives and relationships. In the plaster, items
of nostalgia were fixed, such as bracelets, necklaces, dolls, ivory
statuettes, and small domestic items such as buttons, pins, and
coins. These objects were of no great symbolic significance and had
meaning only for the family of the deceased. Catacomb decoration was
not the work of a particular school of artists but of individual
believers who. by assembling and reconverting humble belongings,
managed to express themselves in a spontaneous and intimate way.
From a means of giving recognition to anonymous tombs, this custom
went on to kindle new styles. The addition of bright materials,
shells, pieces of glass, and coloured marbles meant that these
subterranean creations came to life in the light of the blazing
lanterns.
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THE JEWS OF ROME
Under Greek rule, the Jews had struggled to retain their identity as
a people, but the Romans recognized their religious practices as
lawful. The destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman emperor Titus
(ad70) led to a widespread diaspora ("dispersal"), with large-scale
immigration to Italy, where the Jews were permitted to observe their
rites. Excavations at Pompeii uncovered the writing on the wall of a
member of the Jewish community, who, during the catastrophic
eruption of Vesuvius (ad79), had scribbled "Sodom and Gomorrah".
During the reign of Hadrian, the Jewish rising in Palestine
(ad132-135) widened the rift with the Christian community of
Jerusalem, which was loyal to the Romans. In Rome, there were at
least 12 synagogues, one fine example surviving to this day at Ostia.
The inscriptions in the Jewish catacombs were initially in Aramaic
and Greek but then superseded by Latin. Alongside these writings,
other features of Jewish rituals were found in the architecture of
synagogues, or on ceramics and gilded glass vases - for example, the
seven-branched candelabrum (menorah), the dove, the palm, and the
ampulla of oil. All these symbois became associated with the
conventional funeral repertory, sometimes contained within a
narrative influenced by local styles. For instance, in one painting
from the Jewish cemetery of Vigna Randanini, the mythical singer
Orpheus merges with the psalmist David, and the background contains
liturgical subjects
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Stone slab that closed the burial niche of a baby,
with Hebrew symbols and the Greek inscription
"Judas, aged seven months, lies here ",
catacombs of Via Portuense,
fourth century Museum of Hebrew Inscriptions, Vatican City
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