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History of Literature, Fhilosophy and Religions
(contents)
PART I
A Brief History of Western Literature
Introduction
Western Literature
The Foundations
of Western Literature
The
Bible
Classical Literature
The Middle Ages
and the Renaissance
The 17-18th Century
The 18-19th Century
Modernism
WESTERN LITERATURE
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THE
BIBLE
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see:
The Bible illustrations by
Julius von Carolsfeld "Das Buch der Bucher in
Bildeb"
Gustave Dore
William Blake
"The Book of Job"
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Bible
The sacred scriptures of Judaism and Christianity. The Christian Bible consists
of the Old Testament and the New Testament, with the Roman Catholic and
Eastern Orthodox versions of the Old Testament being slightly larger because of
their acceptance of certain books and parts of books considered apocryphal by
Protestants. The Jewish Bible includes only the books known to Christians as the
Old Testament. The arrangements of the Jewish and Christian canons differ
considerably. The Protestant and Roman Catholic arrangements more nearly match
one another.
Traditionally the Jews have divided their scriptures (i.e., the Old Testament)
into three parts: the Torah (the “Law”), or Pentateuch; the Nevi'im (the
“Prophets”); and the Ketuvim (the “Writings”), or Hagiographa. The Pentateuch,
together with the book of Joshua (hence the name Hexateuch) can be seen as the
account of how Israel became a nation and of how it possessed the Promised Land.
The division designated as the “Prophets” continues the story of Israel in the
Promised Land, describing the establishment and development of the monarchy and
presenting the messages of the prophets to the people. The “Writings” include
speculation on the place of evil and death in the scheme of things (Job and
Ecclesiastes), the poetical works, and some additional historical books.
In the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, various types of literature are
represented; the purpose of the Apocrypha seems to have been to fill in some of
the gaps left by the indisputably canonical books and to carry the history of
Israel to the 2nd century BC.
The New Testament is by far the shorter portion of the Christian Bible, but,
through its associations with the spread of Christianity, it has wielded an
influence far out of proportion to its modest size. Like the Old Testament, the
New Testament is a collection of books, including a variety of early Christian
literature. The four Gospels deal with the life, the person, and the teachings
of Jesus, as he was remembered by the Christian community. The book of Acts
carries the story of Christianity from the Resurrection of Jesus to the end of
the career of Paul. The Letters, or Epistles, are correspondence by various
leaders of the early Christian church, chief among them the Apostle Paul,
applying the message of the church to the sundry needs and problems of early
Christian congregations. The Book of Revelation (the Apocalypse) is the only
canonical representative of a large genre of apocalyptic literature that
appeared in the early Christian movement.
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Michelangelo
Creation of the Sun, Moon, and Plants
1511
Cappella Sistina, Vatican
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Old Testament
In its general framework, the Old Testament is the account of God's dealing with
the Jews as his chosen people. The first six books of the Old Testament narrate
how the Israelites became a people and settled in the Promised Land. The
following seven books continue their story in the Promised Land, describing the
establishment and development of the monarchy and the messages of the prophets.
The last 11 books contain poetry, theology, and some additional historical
works. Throughout the Old Testament, the Jews' historical relation to God is
conceived in reference to the ultimate redemption of all humanity. The Old
Testament's profoundly monotheistic interpretation of human life and the
universe as creations of God provides the basic structure of ideas in which both
Judaism and Christianity exist. The term Old Testament was devised by a
Christian, Melito of Sardis, about AD 170 to distinguish this part of the Bible
from the New Testament. Except for a few passages in Aramaic, the Old Testament
was written originally in Hebrew during the period from 1200 to 100 BC.
The Hebrew canon recognizes the following subdivisions of its three main
divisions: (1) the Torah (q.v.), or Pentateuch, contains narratives combined
with rules and instructions in Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
Deuteronomy; (2) the Nevi'im (q.v.), or Prophets, is subdivided into the Former
Prophets, with anecdotes about major Hebrew persons in the books of Joshua,
Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and stories of the Latter Prophets exhorting Israel
to return to God in Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets;
and (3) the Ketuvim (q.v.), or Writings, with poetry—devotional and erotic—and
theology and drama to be found in Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth,
Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Chronicles.
The total number of books in the Hebrew canon is 24, the number of scrolls on
which these works were written in ancient times. The Old Testament as adopted by
Christianity numbers more works for the following reasons. The Roman Catholic
canon, derived initially from the Greek-language Septuagint (q.v.) translation
of the Hebrew Bible, absorbed a number of books that Jews and Protestants later
determined were not canonical; and Christians divided some of the original
Hebrew works into two or more parts, specifically, Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles
(two parts each), Ezra-Nehemiah (two separate books), and the Minor Prophets (12
separate books).
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Pieter Bruegel the Elder
The Tower of Babel
1563
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Torah
in Judaism, in the broadest sense the substance of divine revelation to Israel,
the Jewish people: God's revealed teaching or guidance for mankind. The meaning
of “Torah” is often restricted to signify the first five books of the Old
Testament, also called the Law or the Pentateuch. These are the books
traditionally ascribed to Moses, the recipient of the original revelation from
God on Mt. Sinai. Jewish, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant
canons all agree on their order: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
Deuteronomy.
The written Torah, in the restricted sense of the Pentateuch, is preserved in
all Jewish synagogues on handwritten parchment scrolls that reside inside the
ark of the Law. They are removed and returned to their place with special
reverence. Readings from the Torah (Pentateuch) form an important part of Jewish
liturgical services.
The term Torah is also used to designate the entire Hebrew Bible. Since for some
Jews the laws and customs passed down through oral traditions are part and
parcel of God's revelation to Moses and constitute the “oral Torah,” Torah is
also understood to include both the Oral Law and the Written Law.
Rabbinic commentaries on and interpretations of both Oral and Written Law have
been viewed by some as extensions of sacred oral tradition, thus broadening
still further the meaning of Torah to designate the entire body of Jewish laws,
customs, and ceremonies.
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Cosimo Rosselli
Crossing of the Red Sea
Cappella Sistina, Vatican
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Nevi'im
(Hebrew), English The Prophets the second division of the Hebrew Bible, or Old
Testament, the other two being the Torah (the Law) and the Ketuvim (the
Writings, or the Hagiographa). In the Hebrew canon the Prophets are divided into
(1) the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) and (2) the Latter
Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve, or Minor, Prophets: Hosea,
Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai,
Zechariah, and Malachi).
This canon, though somewhat fluid up to the early 2nd century BC, was finally
fixed by a council of rabbis at Jabneh (Jamnia), now in Israel, c. AD 100.
The Protestant canon follows the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Old
Testament. It calls the Former Prophets the Historical Books, and subdivides two
of them into I and II Samuel and I and II Kings. Some Roman Catholic and Eastern
Orthodox versions further divide Kings into four books. I and II Maccabees are
also included in the Roman and Eastern canons as historical books.
The Prophets in the Protestant canon include Isaiah (which appears in two books
in some Catholic versions), Jeremiah, and Ezekiel from the Hebrew Latter
Prophets. The Minor Prophets (The Twelve) are treated as 12 separate books; thus
the Protestant canon has 17 prophetic books. The Roman Catholics accept the book
of Baruch, including as its 6th chapter the Letter of Jeremiah, both considered
apocryphal by Jews and Protestants.
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Botticelli
The Return of Judith to Bethulia
c. 1469
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Ketuvim
(Hebrew), English Writings , Greek Hagiographa the third division of the Hebrew
Bible, or Old Testament. Divided into four sections, the Ketuvim include:
poetical books (Psalms, Proverbs, and Job), the Megillot, or Scrolls (Song of
Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Ecclesiastes, and Esther), prophecy
(Daniel), and history (Ezra, Nehemiah, and I and II Chronicles).
Thus the Ketuvim are a miscellaneous collection of liturgical poetry, secular
love poetry, wisdom literature, history, apocalyptic literature, a short story,
and a romantic tale. They were composed over a long period of time—from before
the Babylonian Exile in the early 6th century BC to the middle of the 2nd
century BC—and were not entirely accepted as canonical until the 2nd century AD.
Unlike the Torah and the Nevi'im (Prophets), which were canonized as groups,
each book of the Ketuvim was canonized separately, often on the basis of its
popularity.
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El Greco
The Burial of the Count of Orgaz
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see:
The Bible illustrations by
Julius von Carolsfeld "Das Buch der Bucher in
Bildeb"
Gustave Dore
William Blake
"The Book of Job"
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New Testament
second, later, and smaller of the two major divisions of the Christian Bible,
and the portion that is canonical (authoritative) only to Christianity.
Christians see in the New Testament the fulfillment of the promise of the Old
Testament. It relates and interprets the new covenant, represented in the life
and death of Jesus, between God and the followers of the Christ. Like the Old
Testament it contains a variety of kinds of writing. Among its 27 books are
selected recollections of the life and acts and sayings of Jesus in the four
Gospels; a historical narrative of the first years of the Christian Church in
Acts of the Apostles; Epistles or letters of advice, instruction, admonition,
and exhortation to local groups of Christians—14 attributed to Paul, one
(Hebrews) probably in error, and seven by three other authors; and an
apocalyptic description of the intervention of God in history, the Book of
Revelation.
The books are not arranged chronologically in the New Testament. The Epistles of
Paul, for example, which address the immediate problems of local churches
shortly after Christ's death, are considered to be the earliest texts. The books
are instead arranged in a more logical narrative order, the Gospels telling the
life of Jesus and his teachings; the Acts detailing the work of Christ's
followers in propagating the Christian faith; the Epistles teaching the meaning
and implications of the faith; and Revelation prophesying future events and the
culmination of the divine purpose.
The setting of the New Testament within the Christian community is one factor
that makes a biography of Jesus or a history of the 1st-century church difficult
or impossible. The books of the New Testament were composed not in order to
satisfy historical curiosity about the events they recount but to bear witness
to a faith in the action of God through these events. A history of the New
Testament is made difficult by the relatively short time span covered by its
books when compared with the millennium and more of history described by the Old
Testament. There is less historical information in the New Testament than in the
Old, and many historical facts about the church in the 1st century therefore
must be arrived at by inference from statements in one of the Gospels or
Epistles.
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Saint John
Takes the Book from the Seventh Angel
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Book of Revelation
also called Book of Revelation , or Apocalypse of John last book of the New
Testament. It is the only book of the New Testament classified as apocalyptic
literature rather than didactic or historical, indicating thereby its extensive
use of visions, symbols, and allegory, especially in connection with future
events. Revelation to John appears to be a collection of separate units composed
by unknown authors who lived during the last quarter of the 1st century, though
it purports to have been written by John, “the beloved disciple” of Jesus, at
Patmos, in the Aegean Sea.
The book comprises two main parts, the first of which (chapters 2–3) contains
moral admonitions (but no visions or symbolism) in individual letters addressed
to the seven Christian churches of Asia Minor. In the second part (chapters
4–22:5), visions, allegories, and symbols (to a great extent unexplained) so
pervade the text that exegetes necessarily differ in their interpretations. Many
scholars, however, agree that Revelation is not simply an abstract spiritual
allegory divorced from historical events, nor merely a prophecy concerning the
final upheaval at the end of the world, couched in obscure language. Rather, it
deals with a contemporary crisis of faith, probably brought on by Roman
persecutions. Christians are consequently exhorted to remain steadfast in their
faith and to hold firmly to the hope that God will ultimately be victorious over
his (and their) enemies. Because such a view presents current problems in an
eschatological context, the message of Revelation also becomes relevant to
future generations of Christians who, Christ forewarned, would likewise suffer
persecution. The victory of God over Satan (in this case, the perseverance of
Christians in the face of Roman persecution) typifies similar victories over
evil in ages still to come and God's final victory at the end of time.
Although Christ is clearly the central figure of Revelation, an understanding of
the text presupposes familiarity with Old Testament language and concepts,
especially those taken from the books of Daniel and Ezekiel. The author uses the
number seven, for example, in a symbolic sense to signify “totality” or
“perfection.” References to “a thousand years” (chapter 20) have led some to
expect that the final victory over evil will come after the completion of some
millennium.
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Tintoretto
Susanna and the Elders
c. 1555
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
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Apocrypha
in biblical literature, works outside an accepted canon of scripture. The
history of the term's usage indicates that it referred to a body of esoteric
writings that were at first prized, later tolerated, and finally excluded. In
its broadest sense apocrypha has come to mean any writings of dubious authority.
There are several levels of dubiety within the general concept of apocryphal
works in Judeo-Christian biblical writings. Apocrypha per se are outside the
canon, not considered divinely inspired but regarded as worthy of study by the
faithful. Pseudepigrapha are spurious works ostensibly written by a biblical
figure. Deuterocanonical works are those that are accepted in one canon but not
in all.
At the time when Greek was the common spoken language in the Mediterranean
region, the Old Testament—the Hebrew Bible—was incomprehensible to most of the
population. For this reason, Jewish scholars produced the Septuagint, a
translation of the Old Testament books from various Hebrew texts, along with
fragments in Aramaic, into Greek. That version incorporated a number of works
that later, non-Hellenistic Jewish scholarship at the Council of Jamnia (AD 90)
identified as being outside the authentic Hebrew canon. The Talmud separates
these works as Sefarim Hizonim (Extraneous Books).
The Septuagint was an important basis for St. Jerome's translation of the Old
Testament into Latin for the Vulgate Bible; and, although he had doubts about
the authenticity of some of the apocryphal works that it contained (he was the
first to employ the word apocrypha in the sense of “noncanonical”), he was
overruled, and most of them were included in the Vulgate. On April 8, 1546, the
Council of Trentdeclared the canonicity of nearly the entire Vulgate, excluding
only the Third and Fourth Books of Maccabees, the Prayer of Manasseh, Psalm 151,
and the First and Second Books of Esdras. Eastern Christendom, meanwhile, had
accepted some of the Old Testament apocrypha—Tobit, Judith, the Wisdom of
Solomon, and Ecclesiasticus (Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach)—but rejected the
rest.
The other apocryphal writings, canonical only to Roman Catholicism, with an
exception or two, include the Book of Baruch (a prophet) and the Letter of
Jeremiah (often the sixth chapter of Baruch); the First and Second Books of
Maccabees; several stories from Daniel, namely, the Song of the Three, Susanna,
and Bel and the Dragon; and extensive portions of the Book of Esther.
Old Testament pseudepigrapha are extremely numerous and offer accounts of
patriarchs and events, attributed to various biblical personages from Adam to
Zechariah. Some of the most significant of these works are the Ascension of
Isaiah, the Assumption of Moses, the Life of Adam and Eve, the First and Second
Books of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Letter of Aristeas, and the Testaments
of the Twelve Patriarchs.
All the New Testament apocrypha are pseudepigraphal, and most of them fall into
the categories of acts, gospels, and epistles, though there are a number of
apocalypses and some can be characterized as wisdom books. The apocryphal acts
purport to relate the lives or careers of various biblical figures, including
most of the apostles; the epistles, gospels, and others are ascribed to such
figures. Some relate encounters and events in mystical language and describe
arcane rituals. Most of these works arose from sects that had been or would be
declared heretical, such as, importantly, the Gnostics. Some of them argued
against various heresies, and a few appear to have been neutral efforts to
popularize the life of some saint or other early leader of the church, including
a number of women. In the early decades of Christianity no orthodoxy had been
established, and various parties or factions were vying for ascendancy and
regularity in the young church. All sought through their writings, as through
their preaching and missions, to win believers. In this setting virtually all
works advocating beliefs that later became heretical were destined to
denunciation and destruction.
In addition to apocryphal works per se, the New Testament includes a number of
works and fragments that are described by a second meaning of the term
deuterocanonical: “added later.” The Letter to the Hebrews attributed to Paul,
who died before it was written, is one of these; others are the letters of
James, Peter (II), John (II and III), and Jude, and the Revelation to John.
Fragments include Mark 16:9–20, Luke 22:43–44, and John 7:53 and 8:1–11. All are
included in the Roman canon and are accepted by the Eastern Church and most
Protestant churches.
Heretical movements such as Gnosticism and Montanism spawned a great body of New
Testament pseudepigrapha. The existence of such purported scriptures lent great
impetus to the process of canonization in the young and orthodox Christian
Church.
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Daniele da Volterra
Madonna with Child, Sts Giovannino and Barbara
c. 1548
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* * *
see:
The Bible illustrations by
Julius von Carolsfeld "Das
Buch der Bucher in Bildeb"
Gustave Dore
William Blake
"The Book of Job"
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Books of the Bible
Jewish Canon
Christian Canon
Protestant Canon
Roman Catholic Canon
(Revised Standard Version [RSV]) (Douai-Confraternity Versions)
Old Testament
Torah
("The Law")
Genesis Genesis; or, The First Book of
Moses The Book of Genesis
Exodus Exodus; or, The Second Book of Moses The Book of Exodus
Leviticus Leviticus; or, The Third Book of Moses The Book of Leviticus
Numbers Numbers; or, The Fourth Book of Moses The Book of Numbers
Deuteronomy Deuteronomy; or, The Fifth Book of Moses The Book of
Deuteronomy
The Book of Joshua The Book of Josue
Nevi'im
("The Prophets")
The Book of Judges The Book of Judges
The Book of Ruth The Book of Ruth
Joshua The First Book of Samuel The First Book of Kings
Judges The Second Book of Samuel The Second Book of Kings
First Samuel The First Book of Kings The Third Book of Kings
Second Samuel The Second Book of Kings The Fourth Book of Kings
First Kings The First Book of Chronicles The First Book of Paralipomenon
Second Kings The Second Book of Chronicles The Second Book of
Paralipomenon
Isaiah The Book of Ezra The First Book of Esdras
Jeremiah The Book of Nehemiah The Second Book of Esdras
Ezekiel The Book of Tobias (apocryphal Tobit in RSV)
Hosea The Book of Judith (apocryphal Judith in RSV)
Joel The Book of Esther (includes The Additions to The Book of Esther,
apocryphal in RSV)
Amos The Book of Esther The Book of Job
Obadiah The Book of Job The Book of Psalms
Jonah The Psalms The Book of Proverbs
Micah The Proverbs Ecclesiastes
Nahum Ecclesiastes; or, The Preacher Solomon's Canticle of Canticles
Habakkuk The Song of Solomon The Book of Wisdom (apocryphal Wisdom of
Solomon in RSV)
Zephaniah Ecclesiasticus (apocryphal Ecclesiasticus in RSV)
Haggai The Prophecy of Isaias
Zechariah The Prophecy of Jeremias
Malachi The Book of Isaiah The Lamentations of Jeremias
The Book of Jeremiah The Prophecy of Baruch (apocryphal Baruch and The
Letter of Jeremiah in RSV)
Ketuvim
("The Writings")
The Lamentations of Jeremiah
The Prophecy of Ezechiel
The Prophecy of Daniel (includes The Prayer of Azariah and the Song of
the
Psalms The Book of Ezekiel Three Young Men, Susanna, and Bel and the
Dragon, apocryphal in RSV)
Proverbs The Book of Daniel The Prophecy of Osee
Job The Prophecy of Joel
The Song of Songs The Book of Hosea The Prophecy of Amos
Ruth The Book of Joel The Prophecy of Abdias
Lamentations The Book of Amos The Prophecy of Jonas
Ecclesiastes The Book of Obadiah The Prophecy of Micheas
Esther The Book of Jonah The Prophecy of Nahum
Daniel The Book of Micah The Prophecy of Habacuc
Ezra The Book of Nahum The Prophecy of Sophonias
Nehemiah The Book of Habakkuk The Prophecy of Aggeus
First Chronicles The Book of Zephaniah The Prophecy of Zacharias
Second Chronicles The Book of Haggai The Prophecy of Malachias
The Book of Zechariah The First Book of Machabees (apocryphal The First
Book of the Maccabees in RSV)
The Book of Malachi The Second Book of Machabees (apocryphal The Second
Book of the Maccabees in RSV)
New Testament
The Gospel According to Matthew The Holy Gospel of
Jesus Christ According to St. Matthew
The Gospel According to Mark The Holy Gospel of Jesus Christ According
to St. Mark
The Gospel According to Luke The Holy Gospel of Jesus Christ According
to St. Luke
The Gospel According to John The Holy Gospel of Jesus Christ According
to St. John
The Acts of the Apostles Acts of the Apostles
The Letter of Paul to the Romans The Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle to
the Romans
The First Letter of Paul to the Corinthians The First Epistle of St.
Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians
The Second Letter of Paul to the Corinthians The Second Epistle of St.
Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians
The Letter of Paul to the Galatians The Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle
to the Galatians
The Letter of Paul to the Ephesians The Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle
to the Ephesians
The Letter of Paul to the Philippians The Epistle of St. Paul the
Apostle to the Philippians
The Letter of Paul to the Colossians The Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle
to the Colossians
The First Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians The First Epistle of St.
Paul the Apostle to the Thessalonians
The Second Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians The Second Epistle of St.
Paul the Apostle to the Thessalonians
The First Letter of Paul to Timothy The First Epistle of St. Paul the
Apostle to Timothy
The Second Letter of Paul to Timothy The Second Epistle of St. Paul the
Apostle to Timothy
The Letter of Paul to Titus The Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle to Titus
The Letter of Paul to Philemon The Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle to
Philemon
The Letter to the Hebrews The Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle to the
Hebrews
The Letter of James The Epistle of St. James the Apostle
The First Letter of Peter The First Epistle of St. Peter the Apostle
The Second Letter of Peter The Second Epistle of St. Peter the Apostle
The First Letter of John The First Epistle of St. John the Apostle
The Second Letter of John The Second Epistle of St. John the Apostle
The Third Letter of John The Third Epistle of St. John the Apostle
The Letter of Jude The Epistle of St. Jude the Apostle
The Revelation to John The Apocalypse of St. John the Apostle
Apocrypha
The First Book of Esdras
The Second Book of Esdras
Tobit
Judith
The Additions to the Book of Esther
The Wisdom of Solomon
Ecclesiasticus; or, The Wisdom of Jesus the
Son of Sirach
Baruch
The Letter of Jeremiah
The Prayer of Azariah and the Song of
the Three Young Men
Susanna
Bel and the Dragon
The Prayer of Manasseh
The First Book of the Maccabees
The Second Book of the Maccabees
Note on the Apocrypha.
The Protestant Old Testament books of Ezra and
Nehemiah are known to Roman Catholics as respectively the first and
second books of Esdras.
The two Apocrypha books of Esdras constitute an entirely separate
entity, usually called together Third Esdras by Roman Catholics. This
latter two-book Esdras is not considered part of the Old Testament by
either Protestants or Roman Catholics. Eastern Orthodox churches hold
all the books, including Third Esdras, to be canonical, or part of the
Old Testament. The Prayer of Manasseh was included only in the appendix
to the Latin Vulgate Bible.
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(Encyclopaedia Britannica)
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