Paalen Wolfgang (1905—59). Viennese-born Surrealist
painter. He studied in Paris, but later lived and worked in
Mexico.
Pacher Michael (f. 1435-98). Tyrolese painter and sculptor.
P. was a highly influential original painter who, under the
influence of Mantegna, achieved a new spatial clarity in his
essentially German style; his work, however, remained for
long unknown outside the Tyrol. P.'s best-known work is the St Wolfgang altarpiece in the
Salzkammergut. The carved and painted central panel and the
frame are by his hand, providing proof of his remarkable
mastery of form. The frame, still Gothic in style, forms a
part of painted compositions which themselves are in the
Renaissance spirit of scientific perspective and objective
observation.
Padilla Eugenio
Lucas y
(1824-1870).Romantic
painter.
Padua, school of. School of Italian painting which became
important in the 15th с under Squarcione and through his
pupils Mantegna, Tura and Grivelli powerfully influenced the
Ferrarese and Venetian schools.
Pahari painting. Art of *Rajput courts (c. 1650—с 1820) in
the Himalayan foothills of the Punjab. A mature style of
flat, bold, intense colour and strong profiles is 1st found
at Basohli. Other important centres were Bilaspur, Guler,
|ammu, *Kangra and Mandi. *Mughal miniature painting was
influential but Hindu folk-style predominates.
Paik Nam June (1932- ). Korean-American composer, and
Performance and video artist. In 1958 he met *Gage in
Germany which resulted in performance works called 'action
concerts', e.g. Htude for Pianoforte (i960). In the early
1960s he became associated with *Fluxus and took part in the
first 'official' Fluxus festival
in Wiesbaden in 1962. P. then began using television as an
art medium, and in 1963 exhibited at the first international
video art show at the Galerie Bruce Kurtz in Wuppertal. In
1964 he moved to N.Y. He made (Hello Sonato No. t for Adults
Only (1965) with the cellist Charlotte Moorman, which became
notorious because in the work she undresses while playingj.
S. Bach; in TV Cello (1969) she plays a 'cello' made of TV
monitors. In 1970 P. and the Japanese engineer Suya Abe
invented a video synthesizer which could mix, polarize and
distort images from several video and TV sources, e.g.
(Global Groove (1973). Obsessed with television as a medium,
he installs TV sets in different ways: hanging them in rows
from the ceiling, lying them on the floor and stacking them
like building blocks, etc., e.g. V-yramid (1982). P. has
also used disembowelled old TV cabinets filled with fish,
drawings or video cameras, e.g. The Elements (1991).
Painterly. *Malensch
Painters
Eleven.
Canadian group of painters. It was formed in November 1953
by 11 artists working in and around Toronto: Jack Bush, Oscar
Cahén (1916–56), Hortense Gordon (1887–1961), Tom Hodgson (b
1924), Alexandra Luke (1901–67), Jock Macdonald, Ray Mead (b
1921), Kazuo Nakamura (b 1926), William Ronald, Harold
Town and Walter Yarwood (b 1917). Seven of these
artists had shown their work together in October 1953 in
Abstracts at Home, an exhibition organized by Ronald at a
Toronto department store, the Robert Simpson Company; when
they agreed to combine forces with four others, they chose a
name that reflected their number and also made ironic
reference to the Group of Seven, the Ontario-based landscape
painters whose influence in the province was still pervasive
in the 1950s. The members of Painters Eleven, which disbanded
in October 1960, differed widely in background, experience and
ambition; they were united by their interest in contemporary
international art and in their belief that their need to
exhibit their work would be better achieved collectively than
individually. They felt isolated from the art of their own
time and frustrated by the control exercised over the limited
exhibiting possibilities presented by such art societies as
the Ontario Society of Artists and the Canadian Group of
Painters.
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Pala-Sena. Cultural period in Bengal under the Buddhist Pala
dynasty (r. 760-1142) and the 12th-c. Hindu Senas. Stone
sculpture greatly elaborated the *Gupta style. Nalanda
(Kanauj) was an important centre for Buddhist *cire perdue
bronze statuary. The Tantric aspect of Hinduism and Buddhism
is apparent in the symbolism of P.-S. art.
Palette. Flat thin board on which a painter lays and mixes
his colours. By derivation used of an artist's choice of
particular colours as a characteristic of his style.
Pallava. S.E. Indian dynasty (c. 300-888). Its chief
artistic glories are the medieval temples at *Mahabalipuram
and the early 8th-c. Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram
(Conjeeveram, Tamilnadu). Exquisite P. bronzes foreshadow
*Chola achievements.
Pannini
Giovan Paolo (1691/2—1765). Italian landscape
painter, noted particularly for his picturesque portrayal of
ruins, and an admirer of the work of Salvator Rosa. His very
large output included historical scenes in architectural
settings and capriccios. Many of his large works were lost or
destroyed.
Panofsky Erwin (1892—1968). German art historian, one of the
most important of his generation. In 193s he settled in the
U.S.A. where he taught at Princeton Univ. With *Saxl he
established the method of *iconology. His best-known works
are Meaning in the Visual Arts and Early Netherlandish
Painting. *iconography.
Panorama. A circular life-size painting of a view which
surrounds the spectator creating the illusion of reality.
Pantocrator (Gr. universal ruler). Term for the image of
Christ in majesty in *Byzantine art. The P. situated in dome
or apse as the focus of the pictorial scheme, portrays the
bust and head of Christ with stern bearded face; the best
examples are among the most awe-inspiring images of all
religious art.
Paolini
Giulio
(Italian Arte Povera Painter and Sculptor, born in 1940)
Paolozzi
Eduardo (1924— ). Edinburgh-born sculptor; he
studied at the Slade School, London (1943—7) and then
worked (1947—50) in Paris. His Jason (1956) and Large Frog
(1958) are examples of assemblages of unrelated ordinary
objects — often fragments of abandoned machinery — into
figures. P. has also made ceramics, drawings, prints, books
and films, and he has been given commissions for civic
works.
Papiers colles (Fr. glued paper). Term which refers to the
technique of incorporating various types of paper —
newspaper, wallpaper, bus-tickets, etc. — into a
composition. It was first used by *Braque, then by other
Cubist painters such as *Picasso and *Gris. *collage.
Paris Matthew
(b c. 1200; d 1259).
English
chronicler and manuscript illuminator. In 1217 he became
a Benedictine monk at St Albans and in 1236 succeeded
Roger of Wendover as the abbey’s chronicler. Although
his surname, which he usually wrote Parisiensis,
could suggest French origins, he was most probably an
Englishman characteristically trained in both Latin and
Anglo-Norman. References in his works to the University
of Paris, however, raise the possibility that he had
studied at one of the schools in Paris. Paris maintained
a wide range of contacts with the outside world through
the steady flow of documents to St Albans and through
the abbey’s many visitors, including Henry III and his
brother, Richard of Cornwall. He attended many important
royal celebrations at Westminster, Canterbury,
Winchester and York, and in 1248 he was sent to Norway
to reform the monastery of St Benet Holm.
Paris, school of. *Ecole de Paris
Paris Psalter (10th c; Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris).
Byzantine codex of the golden age of Byzantine illumination
when artists returned to classical paintings for their
illustrations. The text is m Greek minuscules and it
contains 14 full-page miniatures including г of David with
his harp. Derived from a Graeco-Roman picture of Orpheus taming the beasts, it became very popular and was
much copied.
Parkes Michael
(1944 – ) is an American-born
magic realism artist specializing in fantasy painting, stone
lithography and sculpture. Parkes' work is widely available
in the form of popular poster prints in many print shops,
and nine books of his artwork have been published.
Though he studied graphic art and painting at the University of Kansas,
his unique style evolved in isolation, after a period in which he gave up
the practice of art altogether and went to India in search of
philosophical illumination. Born in 1944, he is considered one of hippie
generation. Early on, he painted in the generally
abstract expressionist style common among his teachers, but after his
pause for reflection he began to draw and paint in a meticulous style of
detailed representation which enabled him to give full expression to his
inner world of images. The style was in principle realistic, the
subject matter magical, and magic realism has characterised his work ever
since. He studied the esoteric doctrines of the
East and the West, and his imagery is drawn from a range of wisdoms
including the cabalistic and the tantric, but embodied in forms from his
own imagination which are immediately accessible. Here strange beasts
encounter mysterious winged women, good and evil fight out their
immemorial conflict (though who can be perfectly sure which is which?),
and in this weightless environment worlds are unmade and remade nearer to
the heart's desire. Even as a student Parkes was fascinated
by various graphic processes, and in recent years he has become highly
proficient in the difficult medium of the colour stone lithograph.
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Parma, school of. School of Italian painting which
flourished in the 15th and 16th cs under the patronage of
the Farnese family. Correggio and his pupil Parmigianino were
its most influential members.
Parmigianino Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola
(1503-40). Italian Mannerist painter and engraver named
after his birthplace, Parma. He fled Parma с 1521, was
taken prisoner during the sacking of Rome (1527), sought
asylum in Bologna, returned to Parma (1531), only to die in Casalmaggiore, again a refugee. Frescoes can be found in the
churches of most of these cities, notably in S. Maria dell
Steccata, Parma. P.'s art, influenced by Correggio, Raphael
and Michelangelo, is characterized by the elongation of the
figures,
and influenced in its turn the school of *Fontainebleau.
Typical of his altarpieces is the Madonna and Child with St
John the Baptist and St Jerome, while among the warmest of
Mannerist portraits, reserved yet somehow intimate, is the
masterly Portrait of a Woman, probably portraying P.'s
mistress, Antea la Bella'.
Parodi Filippo
(b Genoa, 1630; d Genoa, 22 July 1702).
Sculptor and
wood-carver. Ratti stated that Filippo first worked as a wood-carver and
went to Rome twice, staying for six years each time. The time Parodi
spent in Rome is vital for the understanding of the stylistic
characteristics of his work. The crowning of the pediment of the altar
of the Virgin in S Maria delle Vigne, Genoa, with allegorical figures of
Faith, Hope and Charity follows a composition that
occurs frequently in Roman churches, and four statues representing
characters from Ovid’s Metamorphoses (Narcissus,
Hyacinth, Heliantha and Flora, all Genoa, Pal. Reale)
reveal a thorough knowledge of Roman Baroque sculpture. These works, and
a large carved wooden looking-glass in the Villa Durazzo at Albisola,
Genoa, probably date not much later than 1661.
Parrhasios (fl. с 400 BC). Classical Greek painter who was
born at Ephesus. He was the pupil of Euphranor and the rival
of Xeuxis. He was noted for his vanity, as well as for his
ability as a figure painter; he styled himself' the prince of
painters'.
Pars
William
(b London, 28 Feb 1742; d Rome, 1782). English
painter. He first established himself in London as a portrait
painter, exhibiting at the Society of Artists in 1760 and at the
Free Society of Artists from 1761. In 1764 he won the third
premium of the Royal Society of Arts for his history painting
depicting Caractacus before the Emperor Claudius
(untraced). In the same year he was selected by the Dilettanti
Society to accompany Richard Chandler and Nicholas Revett on an
archaeological expedition to Asia Minor and Greece (1764–6). His
views of Classical monuments in Asia Minor were engraved and
published in Ionian Antiquities (1769), while those he
made in Greece, which included pioneering drawings of the
Parthenon sculptures, were used in the second volume of James
Stuart’s Antiquities of Athens (1777). In 1769 seven of
the crisp, coolly lit watercolour originals (London, BM) with
their lively figures (probably influenced by Stuart’s own
gouache drawings) were exhibited at the Royal Academy; Pars was
elected ARA the following year.
Parthenon. Doric temple on the Acropolis, Athens, built
447-432 BC: and dedicated to Athena the Virgin
('parthenos'). The architects were Ictinus and Callicrates,
and the master sculptor *Phidias. The sculpture (of which
the largest coll., known as the 'Elgin Marbles', is in the
British Mus.) consisted of (1) large freestanding figures m
the pediments representing Athena, Poseidon and other gods;
(2) the high reliefs of the metopes, alternating with
triglyphs, showing the fight between the Lapiths and
Centaurs; and (3) the continuous low-relief frieze round the
top of the outside cella wall, showing the Panathenaic
procession of youths and maidens bringing the sacred 'cloak'
('peplos') to the goddess. Inside the cella was the huge
ivory and gold statue of Athena by Phidias. Lord Elgin
removed most of the sculpture during 1801—3, but some
remains in situ. There are also portions of the frieze in
the Louvre.
Pascali Pino
(1935 - 1968).
Arte Povera
Pascin Jules (1885-1930). Bulgarian-born U.S. painter and
decorative artist. He studied in Vienna, Berlin and Paris.
He made an early reputation as a cartoonist in Germany and
also ill. the works of Heine. He then turned to serious
painting, working in France and the U.S.A. (becoming a
citizen in 1915); his subject matter was primarily the
female nude with echoes of Toulouse-Lautrec and Degas and
stylistic elements from his contemporaries *Grosz and
*Schiele.
Pastel. Drawing material consisting of artificial chalks
made of ground white chalk and powder colour. A form of p.
was used in the 1 5th c, but it was fully developed only in
the 18th с, а period which found sympathetic its subtlety,
charm and ability to portray light. Degas revived it and
his work in the medium influenced the Impressionists.
Pater Walter Horatio (1839-94). British writer and aesthete.
From 1864 to 1885 he was a fellow of Brasenose College,
Oxford. He became famous on the publ. of Studies of the
History of the Renaissance (1873), which presented the
Renaissance as an impulse moving men to seek the beautiful
in art, radiating from Italy throughout Europe. Here as
elsewhere P. seeks not to evaluate, but to evoke, in
controlled, rhythmical prose, the beauty of his subject. In
Marius the Upicurean (1885) he recounts the philosophic
quest of a young Roman in Antonine times for truth and inner
peace. Other important works are Imaginary Portraits (1887),
Appreciations (1889) and the autobiographical The Child in
the House (1894).
Patina. A thin coating, often of a carbonate of
copper, green in colour, which forms on bronze sculptures, etc. after
prolonged exposure to the air, or burial, or is induced
artificially. The term is also used to describe the oxide
that forms on the surface of other metals, and by extension
to describe the surface, achieved by age, handling and
polishing over the years, of furniture, silver, etc.
Pattern painting. School of post-Matisse decorative
painting, often deliberately coarse in the way it uses
figurative motifs, which flourished mainly in N.Y. during
the second half of the 1970s. Joyce Kozloft, Kim MacConnel
and Brad Davis are among the artists involved. Synonym:
Dekor.
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Pearl Frush.Pin
-Up Art
Pearlstein Philip (1924- ). U.S. figurative painter. Since
the early 1960s he has concentrated on the realistic but
non-expressive depiction of nudes and, he has written, 'on
the exploitation of creating the illusions of form in
space'. This statement conveys that, contrary to Realist
concerns about subject matter, what are important to P. are
formal considerations often achieved through hard-edge
handling, composition and cropping, e.g. Two Reclining Female Models (1973). The tension with subject matter and
an impersonal *trompe l'aeil verisimilitude give his
paintings a look of formal abstraction.
Pechstein Max (1881-1955)- German painter. In Dresden he met
*Heckel and *Kirchner and became a member of Die *Brucke
(1906). His style at the time shows a complete if more
decorative assimilation of their ideas, both in his taste
for the raw and unsophisticated and in his expressive use of
colour and paint — Under the 'Trees (1911). In 1910 he
joined *Nolde's Neue *Sezession. His later work, like
Muller's, involved a more obviously sophisticated,
decorative form of primitivism. He taught at the Berlin
Academy from 1923 to 1933, when he was dismissed by the
Nazis, and again from 1945.
Peintres cubistes, Les. *Apollinaire
Penck
A.R., born Ralph Winkler
P. (1939- ). East German painter and sculptor who settled in
the west in 1980. In the 1960s he shared ideas with the
*Neo-Expressionist *Baselitz.
In the 1970s he developed a hieroglyphic style in a series
of paintings called 'Standart' in which a black stick
figure represents Everyman. The overall hieroglyphic mixture
of stick figures, symbols, numbers, letters and patterns
allude to a mythic subconscious, but are also related to
*Klee, *Miro and other primitivist modern artists, e.g. Der
Jager (1985).
Penrose
Roland Sir (1900—84). British artist and writer on
art. He lived in France (1922—36) and became a close friend
of Picasso and the *Surrealist artists and writers. He
organized the 1st International Surrealist Exhibition (1936)
in Britain. After World War II he was one of the founders of
the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London. 1 of the most
prominent British Surrealist artists, he also wrote several
books including Picasso: his Life and World (1958), Portrait
of Picasso (1956), Man Ray (1975), Tapies (1978) and his
autobiography. Scrap Book (1981).
Pentimento. Term sometimes used in painting of figures,
etc. which the artist painted over but which, through the
course of time, have become visible through the superimposed
layers of paint.
Perceptismo.
Argentine movement initiated in Buenos Aires in 1947 under
the leadership of the painter Raul Lozza (b 1911) and
the theoreticians Rembrandt Lozza (1915–90) and Abraham Haber
(1924–86). It was announced in 1948 by an exhibition and
manifesto. Like the ASOCIACIÓN ARTE CONCRETO INVENCIÓN, from
whose internal disagreements the movement emerged, it was
concerned with the promotion of Constructivism in Argentina.
The theories they promulgated were also conveyed through a
magazine, Perceptismo: Teórico y polémico, published
from 1950 to 1953. One of their primary concerns was with the
relationship between the quantity (in terms of surface area)
and quality of flat colour; they conceived of the surface as a
field against which to arrange shapes whose only justification
lay in their interrelationships. In rejecting the supposed
conflict between pictorial or fictitious space and the
physical space in which we move, they proposed that both were
equivalent in value. Lozza’s use of enamel on wood to create
surfaces as polished and perfect as lacquer typified the
technical perfection sought by these painters as a means of
suppressing any trace of subjectivity that would otherwise
distract the observer from the physical presence of the work,
as, for example, in Painting from the Perceptist Period:
No. 184 (1984; Buenos Aires, Mus. Mun. A. Plást. Sívori).
Percier Charles.
Neoclassicism
Performance Art.
Throughout the history of modern art, from
1910 on, P. a., sometimes called 'live art' has been used by
modern art movements as a means of shaking up the prevailing
art establishment and as a catalyst for new ideas. It is
characterized by 3 factors: it is live, it takes place in
front of an audience and it usually involves performing
artists who also work in other media — dancers, fine
artists, musicians and poets: the performer is the artist,
seldom a 'character' like an actor. P. a. was used notably
by exponents of *Futurism (Marinetti, Boccioni), Russian
Futurists and *Constructivists (Mayakovsky, the Blue Blouse
Group, etc.), *Dada (H. Ball, Richard Huelsenbeck, etc.),
*Surreahsm (Breton, Dali, etc.) and at the *Bauhaus under
*Schlemmer, director of the theatre workshop, in accord with
the Bauhaus principle of a 'total art work'. From 1952 P. a.
took on even greater significance esp., to begin with, in
the U.S.A. following the seminal Black Mountain College p.
by John Cage and p.s -often called *'Happenings' — by
artists associated with *Pop art such as *Rauschenberg,
*Dine, *Oldenburg and *Kaprow. More recently, *Action,*Earth and
*Conceptual art have made extensive use
of the medium in works by artists such
as *Klein and *Manzoni; and of the
younger generation, *Acconci, *Anderson,
*Beuys,
*Burden, *Gilbert and George, *Schneemann and R.*Wilson.
Performance Art.
Descriptive term applied to ‘live’ presentations by
artists. It was first used very loosely by artists in the
early 1960s in the USA to refer to the many live events taking
place at that time, such as Happenings, Fluxus concerts,
Events, body art or (in Germany) Aktionen and
Demonstrationen. In 1969 performance was more specifically
incorporated into titles of work in the USA and UK and was
interchangeable with ‘performance piece’ or simply ‘piece’, as
in Vito Acconci’s Performance Test or Following
Piece (both 1969), and by many other artists such as
Dennis Oppenheim, Yoko Ono (b 1933), Dan Graham,
Rebecca Horn, Joan Jonas, Laurie Anderson and Bruce Nauman. It
was closely linked to the ideological tenets and philosophy of
CONCEPTUAL ART, which insisted on ‘an art of which the
material is concepts’ and on ‘an art that could not be bought
and sold’; those who made performance pieces did so as a
statement against the gallery system and the art
establishment.
Perino del Vaga (1500-46). Also known as 'Pierino del Vaga'
and 'Pietro Buonaccorsi'. An Italian painter of the Roman
school. He studied under Raphael and was employed on the
decoration of the Vatican where, after 1520, he took over
much of Raphael's work. He also worked in Florence (1523—5)
and Genoa, decorating the Palazzo Doria. He was, with Giulio
Romano, the greatest successor to Raphael's Academy.
Perov Vasili
(b Tobolsk, 2 Jan 1834; d Kuz’minki, 10 June 1882).
Russian painter. Son of a public
prosecutor, he studied intermittently at Arzamas from 1846
to 1849 at the Art School of Alexander Stupin (1776–1862), a
classicist painter whose School was the first of its type in
provincial Russia, and during the 1850s at the Moscow School
of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture under Sergey
Zaryanko. The work of Pavel Fedotov, pictorial satire in the
press and genre scenes by the Old Dutch masters and William
Hogarth were the greatest formative influences on Perov. His
early works, permeated by a Biedermeier romantic spirit,
combine detailed brushwork with anecdotal narrative and aim
at criticizing social behaviour in line with the
contemporary democratic doctrines of such writers as Nikolay
Chernyshevsky. Such anti-clerical pictures as the Village
Sermon (1861; Moscow, Tret’yakov Gal.) are distinguished
by a particular irony. As in the prose of Nikolai Leskov,
which has many affinities with Perov’s painting, there is a
conflict between feelings of love and hatred, and between an
intimate knowledge of the daily life of the people and an
alienating irony. In 1862–4 Perov travelled abroad, working
mainly in Paris, where he painted a series of vivid genre
scenes of city life. Perov’s success as a genre painter
reached its peak in the latter half of the 1860s. His
compositions become more laconic and expressive; overcoming
an indisciplined use of colour, he achieved an impressive
unity with an austere greyish-brown palette. Such works as
the Drowned Girl (1867) and the Last Tavern by the
City Gates (1868; both Moscow, Tret’yakov Gal.) are
analogous to the prose of Fyodor Dostoyevsky in their
depiction of the lowest strata of urban life. Perov also
wrote, producing talented sketches of popular life.
Perspective. In art a system for representing the
3-dimensional space of actuality on the 2-dimensional space
of the picture plane. The basic observations behind systems
of perspective are that objects in the distance appear
smaller than objects close to the spectator and that
parallel lines appear to meet in the far distance. Working
from such premises and the earlier system of *costruzionc
legittima, 15th-c. Florentine artists, Brunelleschi,
Uccello, Piero della Francesca and above all L. B. Alberti,
evolved the principles of linear p.,
dependent upon, among other things, the
correct use of vanishing points (i.e.
the points where parallel lines appear
to converge). Aerial perspective
achieves effects of distance by
exploiting the changes in colour and tonal values as objects recede from the
observer; the apparent blue of distant mountains is an
obvious effect which can be used in aerial perspective.
Perugino Pietro (Pietro Vannucci) (c. 1445—1523). Italian painter
of the Umbrian school; his work was influenced by his
master Verrocchio, Signorelli and the Flemish painters. He
used the novel technique of oil painting with great mastery
and painted the luminous quality of the Unibrian landscape:
green-brown foreground and middle distance, bluish far
distance are typical of his colour scheme; his figures are
gracefully elongated, with clearly articulated joints,
sculpturesque draperies and dreamy expressions. P. was
called to Rome by Pope Sixtus IV in 1481 to decorate the
Sistme Chapel with a fresco series — the most important is
Christ Gving the Keys to St Peter. A severely symmetrical
composition, it shows P.'s mastery of perspective and
disposition of figures in a monumental geometry. The fresco
The Crucifixion painted in Siena in 1496 is a masterpiece.
The frescoes
painted in the Cambio, Perugia (1498—1500) show his style
in decline. Lack of originality results in stereotypes and
genuine feeling is replaced by sentiment. These frescoes had
a profound influence on the development of Italian art, as
they shaped the youthful work of P.'s pupil and assistant
Raphael.
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