Pompeii
(Encyclopaedia Britannica)
ancient city, Italy
Italian Pompei, Overview
Ancient city, southern Italy, southeast of Naples.
Founded in the 6th century bc (or earlier) by Oscan-speaking
descendants of the Neolithic inhabitants of Campania, Pompeii came under
Greek and Etruscan influence and then was occupied by the Samnites, an
Italic tribe, in the late 5th century bc. The city was allied with Rome
and colonized by 80 bc. It was damaged by an earthquake in ad 63 and was
completely destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. Volcanic
debris buried the town and protected the ruins for years. Archaeological
excavations, begun in 1748, have uncovered much of the city, including
forums, temples, baths, theatres, and hundreds of private homes. See
also Herculaneum.
Main
ancient city of Campania, Italy, 14 miles (23 km) southeast of
Naples, at the southeastern base of Mount Vesuvius. It was built on a
spur formed by a prehistoric lava flow to the north of the mouth of the
Sarnus (modern Sarno) River. Pompeii was destroyed, together with
Herculaneum, Stabiae, Torre Annunziata, and other communities, by the
violent eruption of Mount Vesuvius in ad 79; the circumstances of their
preservation make their remains a unique document of Greco-Roman life.
Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Torre Annunziata were collectively declared a
World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1997.
Pompeii supported between 10,000 and 20,000 inhabitants at the time
of its destruction. The modern town (comune) of Pompei (pop. [1995 est.]
26,241) lies to the east; it contains the Basilica of Santa Maria del
Rosario, a pilgrimage centre.
History
It seems certain that Pompeii, Herculaneum, and nearby towns were first
settled by Oscan-speaking descendants of the Neolithic inhabitants of
Campania. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Oscan village of
Pompeii, strategically located near the mouth of the Sarnus River, soon
came under the influence of the cultured Greeks who had settled across
the bay in the 8th century bc. Greek influence was challenged, however,
when the Etruscans came into Campania in the 7th century. The Etruscans’
influence remained strong until their sea power was destroyed by King
Hieron I of Syracuse in a naval battle off Cumae in 474 bc. A second
period of Greek hegemony followed. Then, toward the end of the 5th
century, the warlike Samnites, an Italic tribe, conquered Campania, and
Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae became Samnite towns.
Pompeii is first mentioned in history in 310 bc, when, during the
Second Samnite War, a Roman fleet landed at the Sarnus port of Pompeii
and from there made an unsuccessful attack on the neighbouring city of
Nuceria. At the end of the Samnite wars, Campania became a part of the
Roman confederation, and the cities became “allies” of Rome. But they
were not completely subjugated and Romanized until the time of the
Social War. Pompeii joined the Italians in their revolt against Rome in
this war and was besieged by the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla in
89 bc. After the war, Pompeii, along with the rest of Italy south of the
Po River, received Roman citizenship; however, as a punishment for
Pompeii’s part in the war, a colony of Roman veterans was established
there under Publius Sulla, the nephew of the Roman general. Latin
replaced Oscan as the official language, and the city soon became
Romanized in institutions, architecture, and culture.
A riot in the amphitheatre at Pompeii between the Pompeians and the
Nucerians, in ad 59, is reported by the Roman historian Tacitus. An
earthquake in ad 62 did great damage in both Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The cities had not yet recovered from this catastrophe when final
destruction overcame them 17 years later.
Mount Vesuvius erupted on Aug. 24, ad 79. A vivid eyewitness report
is preserved in two letters written by Pliny the Younger to the
historian Tacitus, who had inquired about the death of Pliny the Elder,
commander of the Roman fleet at Misenum. Pliny the Elder had rushed from
Misenum to help the stricken population and to get a close view of the
volcanic phenomena, and he died at Stabiae. Site excavations and
volcanological studies, notably in the late 20th century, have brought
out further details. Just after midday on August 24, fragments of ash,
pumice, and other volcanic debris began pouring down on Pompeii, quickly
covering the city to a depth of more than 9 feet (3 metres) and causing
the roofs of many houses to fall in. Surges of pyroclastic material and
heated gas, known as nuées ardentes, reached the city walls on the
morning of August 25 and soon asphyxiated those residents who had not
been killed by falling debris. Additional pyroclastic flows and rains of
ash followed, adding at least another 9 feet of debris and preserving in
a pall of ash the bodies of the inhabitants who perished while taking
shelter in their houses or trying to escape toward the coast or by the
roads leading to Stabiae or Nuceria. Thus Pompeii remained buried under
a layer of pumice stones and ash 19 to 23 feet (6 to 7 metres) deep. The
city’s sudden burial served to protect it for the next 17 centuries from
vandalism, looting, and the destructive effects of climate and weather.
History of excavations
The ruins at Pompeii were first discovered late in the 16th century by
the architect Domenico Fontana. Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and
systematic excavation began there in 1738. Work did not begin at Pompeii
until 1748, and in 1763 an inscription (“Rei publicae Pompeianorum”) was
found that identified the site as Pompeii. The work at these towns in
the mid-18th century marked the start of the modern science of
archaeology.
Under the patronage of Don Carlos, king of Naples, the military
engineer Karl Weber carried out systematic studies from 1750 to 1764,
but other early digging was often haphazard and irresponsible, carried
out by treasure seekers or other untrained workers. Haphazard digging
was brought to a stop in 1860, when the Italian archaeologist Giuseppe
Fiorelli became director of the excavations. Areas lying between
excavated sites were cleared and carefully documented. Pompeii was
divided into nine regions; the insulae (blocks) in each region were
numbered, and each door on the street was given a number so that each
house could be conveniently located by three numerals. Fiorelli also
developed the technique of making casts of bodies by pouring cement into
the hollows formed in the volcanic ash where the bodies had
disintegrated.
In 1951, after the interruption caused by World War II, intensive
excavation was resumed under Amedeo Maiuri, who was in charge of the
excavations from 1924 to 1961. Large areas were uncovered to the south
of the Via dell’Abbondanza, in Regions I and II, and the debris piled
outside the city walls was cleared away. This revealed the Porta (Gate)
di Nocera and an impressive stretch of cemetery lining each side of the
road leading from the gate to Nuceria. By the 1990s, about two-thirds of
the city had been excavated.
In the vicinity of Stabiae and Gragnano, excavations initiated by Don
Carlos of Naples discovered 12 villas between 1749 and 1782. Work was
resumed there in the 20th century. The Villa of San Marco, with its two
large peristyle gardens and bath, is the best preserved. Other villas
have been found at nearby Scafati, Domicella, Torre Annunziata, and on
the lower slopes of Vesuvius near Boscoreale and Boscotrecase. Many of
these villas were reburied after excavation, but a few can be seen,
notably the Villa of the Mysteries.
Description of the remains
The city of Pompeii was shaped irregularly because it was built on a
prehistoric lava flow. Excavations indicate that the southwestern part
of the town is the oldest, but scholars do not agree on the stages by
which the walls were expanded or on who the builders were. The walls are
2 miles (3 km) in circumference, and they enclose an area of about 163
acres (66 hectares). Seven city gates have been excavated. The chief
street running in a southeast-northwest direction was the Via Stabiana;
it connected the Porta Vesuvio, or Vesuvius Gate (144 feet [44 metres]
above sea level), in the highest part of the city, with the Porta di
Stabia, or Stabiae Gate (26 feet [8 metres]), in the lowest part.
Through this gate came traffic from the Sarnus River and Stabiae. This
street was crossed by two other main streets, the Via dell’Abbondanza
and the Via di Nola.
The public buildings are for the most part grouped in three areas:
the Forum (elevation 110 feet [34 metres]), located in the large level
area on the southwest; the Triangular Forum (82 feet [25 metres]),
standing on a height at the edge of the south wall overlooking the bay;
and the Amphitheatre and Palaestra, in the east.
The Forum was the centre of the city’s religious, economic, and
municipal life; it was a large rectangular area surrounded by a
two-story colonnaded portico. Dominating the Forum on the north was the
temple dedicated to the Capitoline triad of deities: Jupiter, Juno, and
Minerva. To the east was the Macellum, or large provision market; to the
south were the small sanctuary of the city Lares (guardian deities),
built after the earthquake in ad 62; the Temple of Vespasian; and the
imposing headquarters of the woolen industry, erected by the wealthy
patroness Eumachia. Opposite the Capitolium, on the southern end of the
Forum, were the meeting place of the city council and the offices of the
magistrates of the city. The large basilica, with its main room
surrounded on four sides by a corridor, is the most architecturally
significant building in the city; it is of considerable importance in
studying the origin and development of the Christian basilica. It served
as a covered exchange and as a place for the administration of justice.
To the west was the Temple of Venus Pompeiana, patron deity of Pompeii.
Across from the basilica was the Temple of Apollo, one of the earliest
in the city.
The Triangular Forum is the site of the Doric Temple, the oldest
temple in Pompeii. Between the 3rd and the 1st century bc, a theatre, a
palaestra (sports ground), and a small covered theatre were built to the
east of the Triangular Forum. The temples of Zeus Meilichius and of Isis
and the old Samnite palaestra were nearby. In the east corner of Pompeii
was the Amphitheatre, and to the west a large palaestra was built to
replace the old Samnite palaestra. Baths were scattered throughout the
town: the Stabian Baths (which predate the Roman period), the Forum
Baths, the Central Baths (still under construction at the time of the
eruption), and many baths in luxurious private homes.
But more significant than the public buildings, examples of which
have been excavated at other sites, are the hundreds of private homes.
These are unique, for only at Pompeii is it possible to trace the
history of Italic and Roman domestic architecture for at least four
centuries. The earliest houses date from the first Samnite period
(4th–3rd century bc). The House of the Surgeon is the best-known example
of the early atrium house built during this period.
The most luxurious houses were built during the second Samnite period
(200–80 bc), when increased trade and cultural contacts resulted in the
introduction of Hellenistic refinements. The House of the Faun occupies
an entire city block and has two atria (chief rooms), four triclinia
(dining rooms), and two large peristyle gardens. Its facade is built of
fine-grained gray tufa from Nuceria, the chief building material of this
period. The walls are decorated in the First Pompeian, or Incrustation,
style of painting, which imitates marble-veneered walls by means of
painted stucco. The famous Alexander the Great mosaic found in the House
of the Faun is probably a copy of a lost Hellenistic painting. Many of
the houses from this period were decorated with elaborate floor mosaics.
(See mosaic: Roman mosaics.) The House of the Silver Wedding, with its
imposing high-columned atrium, was also built during this period, but it
underwent later alterations. The handsome banquet hall and the exedra,
which served as a schoolroom for children of the family, were decorated
in the Second Pompeian, or Architectural, style, which was popular from
80 bc to ad 14.
The large number of houses built during the Samnite period made it
necessary to build fewer houses in the Roman period. Those that were
built were usually less imposing, with lower atria, but with more
elaborate decoration. The House of Marcus Lucretius Fronto is a small
but elegant house of the Roman Imperial period. The tablinum (master’s
office) is decorated in especially fine Third Pompeian, or Egyptianizing,
style, usually dated from the early empire to the earthquake. The House
of the Vettii is typical of the homes of the prosperous merchant class
of the Roman period. Some of its rooms are decorated in the Fourth
Pompeian, or Ornamental, style.
The atrium-peristyle house, with its handsome paintings, elegant
furniture, and beautiful gardens with fountains and bronze and marble
sculptures, is not as typical as has generally been supposed. There are
also numerous small homes throughout the city, many of them shop houses.
Excavators now preserve as completely as possible all aspects of ancient
life. The homes of the humble are as informative as those of the
wealthy. Many roofs, second stories, and balconies have been restored.
Importance as historical source
The extent of the archaeological sites makes them of the greatest
importance, for they provide a unique source of information about so
many aspects of social, economic, religious, and political life of the
ancient world. The many well-preserved house shrines give a hitherto
unexpected picture of the vitality of religion in the family. The
bakeries, complete with mills, kneading machines, and ovens, some still
containing loaves of bread, show how this staple of everyday life was
produced. Numerous fulleries (processing and cleaning plants for wool)
make it possible to study this important industry. The shops of the
sculptor, toolmaker, and gem cutter, as well as the factories for garum
(fish sauce) and lamps and the many wine and food shops, document other
aspects of ancient life. Pompeii was a busy port town that exported
products throughout the Mediterranean region. Merchants and tradesmen
found food and lodging near the city gates and the Forum. Some
restaurants and inns were quite attractive and served food to guests who
reclined in the garden; in the cheaper places, the rooms were small and
dark, and customers sat on stools.
Inscriptions provide further information. They include monumental
inscriptions on public buildings, tombs, and statue bases; the business
transactions recorded in the famous wax tablets of the banker Lucius
Caecilius Jucundus; announcements of gladiatorial combats; and many
election notices, echoes of hotly fought contests. Preserved in the
graffiti are accounts, lists of market days, insults and accusations,
the exchanges of lovers, quotations from Virgil, and even the scratched
alphabets of children. Epigraphical and archaeological evidence makes it
possible to study the stratification of society and learn more of the
freedmen, slaves, small businessmen, and aristocrats of the ancient
Roman world.
Further, Pompeii offers the best opportunity for the study of city
planning and land use in an ancient city. Excavations since the mid-20th
century have revealed an unexpected amount of open land. The large
insula across from the Amphitheatre was not the Foro Boario (Cattle
Market), as had been long supposed, but a vineyard. Many vineyards,
fruit trees, and gardens have been found, indicating less intensive land
use and a smaller population than had been thought.
Unfortunately, the excavations are constantly endangered by the
ravages of weather, tourist traffic at the site, and destructive
vegetation. Reinforced concrete roofs were applied to many structures in
the 1950s, but over subsequent decades this protective measure made
upkeep difficult as some of the concrete deteriorated. In 1995 Pietro
Giovanni Guzzo was made superintendent of the site, and existing
conservation efforts were revitalized and expanded. Despite such
actions, however, Pompeii continued to face numerous problems, including
degradation, mismanagement, and vandalism. In July 2008 the Italian
government took the unprecedented step of declaring a one-year state of
emergency for the site and appointed a special commissioner to oversee
Pompeii. Of first importance is the preservation, restoration, and study
of the valuable evidence already uncovered before it is lost forever.
Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski
Herculaneum
ancient city, Italy
Overview
Ancient city, Campania, Italy.
Located at the northwestern foot of Vesuvius, it was destroyed,
together with Pompeii and Stabiae, by the eruption of ad 79. It was
buried under a mass of tufa about 50 to 60 ft (15 to 18 m) deep, which
made excavation difficult but preserved many fragile items. Excavation
began in the 18th century and uncovered numerous artifacts, including
paintings and furniture. Later work uncovered the palaestra (sports
ground) and a vast central swimming pool.
Main
ancient city of 4,000–5,000 inhabitants in Campania, Italy. It lay 5
miles (8 km) southeast of Naples, at the western base of Mount Vesuvius,
and was destroyed—together with Pompeii, Torre Annunziata, and Stabiae—by
the Vesuvius eruption of ad 79. The town of Ercolano (pop. [1995 est.]
59,695) now lies over part of the site. The excavations of Herculaneum
and Pompeii in the mid-18th century precipitated the modern science of
archaeology. Collectively, the ruins of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Torre
Annunziata were declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1997.
Ancient tradition connected Herculaneum with the name of the Greek
hero Heracles, an indication that the city was of Greek origin. There
is, however, historical evidence that toward the end of the 6th century
bc a primitive nucleus of Oscan-speaking inhabitants came under Greek
hegemony there and that in the 4th century bc Herculaneum came under the
domination of the Samnites. The city became a Roman municipium in 89 bc,
when, having participated in the Social War (“war of the allies” against
Rome), it was defeated by Titus Didius, a legate of Lucius Cornelius
Sulla. Herculaneum was severely shaken by an earthquake in ad 62, and
the serious damage suffered by its public and private buildings had not
yet been repaired when it was buried by the Vesuvius eruption of August
24–25, ad 79. Because few human remains were found during early
excavations, it was assumed that, unlike the people of Pompeii, most of
the inhabitants succeeded in escaping toward Naples, in the direction
opposite to the fall of lapilli and ashes. In the 1980s, however,
excavations at the ancient shoreline of the Bay of Naples (an area that
is now inland) uncovered more than 120 human skeletons, suggesting that
numerous additional inhabitants had also perished while attempting to
escape. Nuées ardentes (a type of pyroclastic flow) were the most likely
cause of death.
The particular circumstances of the burial of Herculaneum, unlike
those of Pompeii, led to the formation over the city of a compact mass
of tufaceous material about 50 to 60 feet (15 to 18 metres) deep.
Although this layer made excavation very difficult, it preserved
Herculaneum and prevented tampering and looting. The special conditions
of ground humidity made possible the conservation of wooden frameworks
of houses, wooden furniture, the hull of a sizable boat, pieces of
cloth, and food (carbonized loaves of bread left within ovens). Thus,
Herculaneum offers a detailed impression of private life that is only
with difficulty achieved in other centres of the ancient world.
Excavation began in the 18th century, when all memory of the existence
of Herculaneum had been lost for centuries and the only available
reports of it were those that had come down through the authors of
antiquity, without any information as to the exact position of the
ancient city. Quite by accident, in 1709, during the digging of a well,
a wall was discovered that was later found to be a part of the stage of
the Herculaneum theatre. Tunnels were soon dug at the site by treasure
hunters, and many of the theatre area’s artifacts were removed. Regular
excavations were started in 1738 under the patronage of the king of
Naples, and from 1750 to 1764 the military engineer Karl Weber served as
director of excavations. Under Weber, diagrams and plans of the ruins
were produced, and numerous artifacts were uncovered and documented.
Magnificent paintings and a group of portrait statues were excavated
from a building thought to be the ancient basilica of Herculaneum, and a
large number of bronze and marble works of art were recovered from a
suburban villa, called the Villa of the Papyri because of its having
contributed a whole library of ancient papyri in Greek. These papyri, on
philosophical subjects of Epicurean inspiration, are preserved in the
National Library of Naples.
The excavations were resumed in 1823 with the intention of
discontinuing the previous tunneling and instead working from above
ground, a method used with success at Pompeii; up to 1835 the work
proved to be of value, bringing to light the first houses of
Herculaneum, among which was the peristyle of the House of Argus.
Abandoned and again resumed in 1869, after the unification of Italy, the
excavations continued until 1875, when, because of the poor results
obtained and the presence of the inhabited dwellings of Resina (now
Ercolano), they were once more abandoned.
After the efforts of the English archaeologist Charles Waldstein to
internationalize the excavations at Herculaneum (1904) by collecting
contributions for this purpose from various nations in Europe and
America, the work was finally resumed in May 1927 with Italian state
funds and with the object of conducting the excavations with the same
continuity as those of Pompeii. The results of this work, interrupted
only by World War II, made it possible to have a clear picture of the
ancient city. The larger decumanus (“main road”) forms one side of the
quarter of the ancient forum with its public buildings. The insulae
(“blocks”) to the south of the decumanus are laid out in a strictly
geometric pattern facing the cardines (“crossroads”). Many of the nobler
houses afforded their patrons a view of the bay. Inside the residential
quarter, houses of rich republican and patrician construction alternate
with houses of the middle class (such as the Trellis House), also finely
decorated, or with commercial houses and workshops.
The public monuments uncovered include the palaestra (sports ground),
with a large portico surrounding a vast central piscina (swimming pool),
and thermae (baths), one of which adjoins the former beachfront. This
bath is in a remarkable state of preservation, having remained largely
protected against the pyroclastic flows of the eruption.
Excavation continues, since the demolition of part of Ercolano, at
the forum of the ancient city and at the ancient coastline.
