Moses
Hebrew prophet
Hebrew Moshe
flourished 14th–13th century bc
Overview
Prophet of Judaism.
According to the Book of Exodus, he was born in Egypt to Hebrew
parents, who set him afloat on the Nile in a reed basket to save him
from an edict calling for the death of all newborn Hebrew males. Found
by the pharaoh’s daughter, he was reared in the Egyptian court. After
killing a brutal Egyptian taskmaster, he fled to Midian, where Yahweh
(God) revealed himself in a burning bush and called Moses to deliver the
Israelites from Egypt. With the help of his brother Aaron, Moses pleaded
with the pharaoh for the Israelites’ release. The pharaoh let them go
after Yahweh had visited a series of plagues on Egypt, but then sent his
army after them. Yahweh parted the waters of the Red Sea to allow the
Israelites to pass, then drowned the pursuing Egyptians. Yahweh made a
covenant with the Israelites at Mount Sinai and delivered the Ten
Commandments to Moses, who continued to lead his people through 40 years
of wandering in the wilderness until they reached the edge of Canaan. He
died before he could enter the Promised Land. Authorship of the first
five books of the Bible (see Torah) is traditionally ascribed to him.
Main
Hebrew prophet, teacher, and leader who, in the 13th century bce (before
the Common Era, or bc), delivered his people from Egyptian slavery. In
the Covenant ceremony at Mt. Sinai, where the Ten Commandments were
promulgated, he founded the religious community known as Israel. As the
interpreter of these Covenant stipulations, he was the organizer of the
community’s religious and civil traditions. In the Judaic tradition, he
is revered as the greatest prophet and teacher, and Judaism has
sometimes loosely been called Mosaism, or the Mosaic faith, in Western
Christendom. His influence continues to be felt in the religious life,
moral concerns, and social ethics of Western civilization, and therein
lies his undying significance.
The historical problem » Historical views of Moses
Few historical figures have engendered such disparate interpretations as
has Moses. Early Jewish and Christian traditions considered him the
author of the Torah (“Law,” or “Teaching”), also called the Pentateuch
(“Five Books”), comprising the first five books of the Bible, and some
conservative groups still believe in Mosaic authorship.
Opposing this is the theory of the German scholar Martin Noth, who,
while granting that Moses may have had something to do with the
preparations for the conquest of Canaan, was very skeptical of the roles
attributed to him by tradition. Although recognizing a historical core
beneath the Exodus and Sinai traditions, Noth believed that two
different groups experienced these events and transmitted the stories
independently of each other. He contended that the biblical story
tracing the Hebrews from Egypt to Canaan resulted from an editor’s
weaving separate themes and traditions around a main character Moses,
actually an obscure person from Moab.
This article, following the lead of the biblical archaeologist and
historian W.F. Albright, presents a point of view that falls somewhere
between these two extremes. While the essence of the biblical story
(narrated between Exodus 1:8 and Deuteronomy 34:12) is accepted, it is
recognized that, during the centuries of oral and written transmission,
the account acquired layers of accretions. The reconstruction of the
documentary sources of the Pentateuch by literary critics is considered
valid, but the sources are viewed as varying versions of one series of
events (see biblical literature: The Torah [Law, Pentateuch, or Five
Books of Moses]). Other critical methods (studying the biblical text
from the standpoint of literary form, oral tradition, style, redaction,
and archaeology) are equally valid. The most accurate answer to a
critical problem is therefore likely to come from the convergence of
various lines of evidence. The aid of critical scholarship
notwithstanding, the sources are so sketchy that the man Moses can be
portrayed only in broad outline.
The historical problem » The date of Moses
According to the biblical account, Moses’ parents were from the tribe of
Levi, one of the groups in Egypt called Hebrews. Originally the term
Hebrew had nothing to do with race or ethnic origin. It derived from
Habiru, a variant spelling of Ḫapiru (Apiru), a designation of a class
of people who made their living by hiring themselves out for various
services. The biblical Hebrews had been in Egypt for generations, but
apparently they became a threat, so one of the pharaohs enslaved them.
Unfortunately, the personal name of the king is not given, and scholars
have disagreed as to his identity and, hence, as to the date of the
events of the narrative of Moses. One theory takes literally the
statement in I Kings 6:1 that the Exodus from Egypt occurred 480 years
before Solomon began building the Temple in Jerusalem. This occurred in
the fourth year of his reign, about 960 bce; therefore, the Exodus would
date about 1440 bce.
This conclusion, however, is at variance with most of the biblical
and archaeological evidence. The storage cities Pitḥom and Rameses,
built for the pharaoh by the Hebrews, were located in the northeastern
part of the Egyptian delta, not far from Goshen, the district in which
the Hebrews lived. It is implicit in the whole story that the pharaoh’s
palace and capital were in the area, but Thutmose III (the pharaoh in
1440) had his capital at Thebes, far to the south, and never conducted
major building operations in the delta region. Moreover, Edom and Moab,
petty kingdoms in Transjordan that forced Moses to circle east of them,
were not yet settled and organized. Finally, as excavations have shown,
the destruction of the cities the Hebrews claimed to have captured
occurred about 1250, not 1400.
Inasmuch as tradition figured about 12 generations from Moses to
Solomon, the reference to 480 years is most likely an editorial comment
allowing 40 years for each generation. Since an actual generation was
nearer 25 years, the most probable date for the Exodus is about 1290
bce. If this is true, then the oppressive pharaoh noted in Exodus
(1:2–2:23) was Seti I (reigned 1318–04), and the pharaoh during the
Exodus was Ramses II (c. 1304–c. 1237). In short, Moses was probably
born in the late 14th century bce.
Years and deeds » The formative years
One of the measures taken by the Egyptians to restrict the growth of the
Hebrews was to order the death of all newborn Hebrew males. According to
tradition, Moses’ parents, Amram and Jochebed (whose other children were
Aaron and Miriam), hid him for three months and then set him afloat on
the Nile in a reed basket daubed with pitch. The child, found by the
pharaoh’s daughter while bathing, was reared in the Egyptian court.
While many doubt the authenticity of this tradition, the name Moses
(Hebrew Moshe) is derived from Egyptian mose (“is born”) and is found in
such names as Thutmose ([The God] Thoth Is Born). Originally, it is
inferred, Moses’ name was longer, but the deity’s name was dropped. This
could have happened when Moses returned to his people or possibly even
earlier, because the shortened form Mose was very popular at that time.
Moses’ years in the court are passed over in silence, but it is
evident from his accomplishments later that he had instruction in
religious, civil, and military matters. Since Egypt controlled Canaan
(Palestine) and part of Syria and had contacts with other nations of the
Fertile Crescent, Moses undoubtedly had general knowledge of life in the
ancient Near East. During his education he learned somehow that he was a
Hebrew, and his sense of concern and curiosity impelled him to visit his
people. According to the biblical narrative, Moses lived 120 years and
was 80 when he confronted Pharaoh, but there is no indication how old he
was when he went to see the Hebrews. Later Jewish and Christian
tradition assumed 40-year periods for his stay in the Egyptian court,
his sojourn in Midian, and his wilderness wanderings.
Most likely Moses was about 25 when he took the inspection tour among
his people. There he saw the oppressive measures under which they
laboured. When he found an Egyptian taskmaster beating a Hebrew,
probably to death, he could control his sense of justice no longer.
After checking to make sure that no one was in sight, he killed the
tough Egyptian overlord. As a prince in the court, Moses was probably in
excellent physical condition, and apparently he knew the latest methods
of combat.
The flush of victory pulled Moses back the next day. He had removed
one threat to his people and was determined to assist them again. This
time, however, he found two Hebrews fighting. After parting them, he
questioned the offender in an attempt to mediate the disagreement. Two
questions jolted him: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you
intend to kill me as you killed the Egyptian?” The confidence of the
self-appointed deliverer turned into fear. One of his own knew his
“secret” and soon Pharaoh would, too. Realizing that he would have to
flee, he went to Midian (mainly in northwest Arabia).
Years and deeds » Moses in Midian
In noting the flight to Midian the narrative says nothing of the
difficulties involved. Like Sinuhe, the Egyptian court official whose
flight in about 1960 bce was narrated in a famous story, Moses
undoubtedly had to filter through the “Wall of the Ruler,” a series of
forts at the eastern border, approximately where the Suez Canal is now
located. From there he made his way southeast through very desolate
country. Unfortunately, the Bible does not specify the part of Midian in
which Moses resided. Midian proper was east of the Gulf of Aqaba, in the
northern section of Hejaz in Arabia, but there is evidence that some of
the Midianite clans crossed over the Arabah (the great valley south of
the Dead Sea) and settled in the eastern and southern sections of the
Sinai Peninsula.
While Moses was resting at a well, according to the biblical account,
seven daughters of the Midianite priest Jethro came to water their
father’s flocks. Other shepherds arrived and drove the girls away in
order to water their own flocks. Again Moses showed his courage and
prowess as a warrior because he took on the shepherds (perhaps with the
girls’ help) and routed them. Moses stayed on with Jethro and eventually
married Zipporah, one of the daughters. In assuming the responsibility
for Jethro’s flocks, Moses roamed the wilderness looking for pasture.
One day at the base of a mountain, his attention was attracted by a
flaming bush, but, oddly, it was not consumed. He had seen bushes
brilliant with flamelike blossoms, but this phenomenon was different,
and so he turned aside to investigate it. Before he could do so, he was
warned to come no closer. Then he was ordered to remove his sandals
because he was standing on holy ground.
Regardless of how one interprets the burning bush, the important fact
is that Moses was conscious of an encounter with Deity. This God, who
claimed to be the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, was calling him to
deliver the Hebrews from Egypt. Although on his own he had previously
been zealous to help his own people, now that he was being commissioned
to deliver them he expressed doubt concerning his qualifications. The
underlying reason was probably fear—he had fled from Seti I, and he did
not relish confrontation with Ramses II. God reassured Moses that in the
future he and the Hebrews would worship at this mountain. Then Moses
asked to know the name of the Deity commissioning him. The God of the
fathers had been known mostly as El ʿElyon (God Most High) or El Shaddai
(God of the Mountain or Almighty God), but he identified himself to
Moses as Yahweh and gave instructions that he was to be called by his
new name from then on. As the causative form of the verb “to be,” Yahweh
means He Who Creates (Brings Into Being). This revelation enabled Moses
to understand the God of the Hebrews as the sovereign Lord over nature
and the nations of the world.
Even after further assurances, Moses was still reluctant to accept
Yahweh’s call; therefore, he pleaded for release because he was a
stammerer. Yahweh acknowledged the defect but promised to help him
express himself. Awed by his assignment, Moses made a final desperate
plea, “Oh, my Lord, send, I pray, some other person.” Although angry at
Moses, Yahweh would not yield. Moses would still be Yahweh’s
representative, but his golden-tongued brother Aaron would be the
spokesman. Apparently Moses was ready to play the role of God to Pharaoh
providing Aaron would serve as his prophet. He returned to Jethro and
requested permission to visit his people in Egypt, but he did not
disclose that he had been commissioned by Yahweh.
Years and deeds » Moses and Pharaoh
Ramses II became king as a teenager and reigned for 67 years. He aspired
to defeat the Hittites and control all of Syria, but in the fifth year
of his reign Ramses walked into a Hittite trap laid for him at Kadesh,
on the Orontes River in Syria. By sheer determination he fought his way
out, but in the light of his purpose the battle was an utter failure.
Yet Ramses, like all the pharaohs, claimed to be divine; therefore, the
defeat had to be interpreted as a marvellous victory in which he alone
subdued the Hittites. His wounded ego expressed itself in massive
building operations throughout Egypt, and before his reign ended the
boast of his success literally filled acres of wall space.
It was probably only a few years after the Kadesh incident that Moses
and Aaron confronted Ramses with their demand, “Thus says the Lord, the
God of Israel, ‘Let my people go.’ ” As a god in human form Ramses was
not accustomed to taking orders from lesser gods, let alone an unknown
like Yahweh. “Who is the Lord,” he inquired, “that I should heed his
voice and let Israel go? I do not know the Lord, and moreover I will not
let Israel go.” Thus the stage was set for a long struggle between a
distrustful ruler with an outsize ego and a prophet with a new
understanding of Yahweh and his power.
Ramses increased the oppression of the Hebrews by the fiendish plan
of requiring them to gather the straw binder for the bricks and still
produce the same quota each day. Some of the Hebrews rebuffed Moses, and
in frustration he asked Yahweh, “Why didst thou ever send me?” Moses’
doubt was allayed by Yahweh’s promise to take action against Pharaoh.
Scholars differ widely concerning the narrative about the plagues. Some
claim that three sources have been combined, but more recent scholarship
finds only the two traditions. While granting that some of the plagues
had a core of historicity, older critics tended to discount the present
accounts as fantastic stories with pious decorations. A recent school of
research suggests that, notwithstanding some later additions, all the
plagues probably had a historical core.
The basic cause, according to one interpretation, was an unusually
high flooding of the Nile. The White Nile originates in the lake region
of east central Africa, known today as Uganda. The flow is fairly even
throughout the year because of consistent equatorial rains. The Blue
Nile, on the other hand, originates in the headwaters of the Ethiopian
highlands, and it varies from a small stream to a raging torrent. At the
time Moses was bargaining with Ramses, excessively heavy summer rains in
Ethiopia washed powdery, carmine-red soil from the slopes of the hills.
Around the Lake Tana region the blood-red torrent picked up bright red
algae (known as flagellates) and their bacteria. Since there were no
dams at that time, the Nile flowed blood-red all the way to the
Mediterranean. It probably reached the delta region in August. Thus,
this rare natural event, it is held, set in motion a series of
conditions that continued until the following March.
During these months Moses used the plagues of the frogs, gnats,
mosquitoes, cattle murrain, boils, hail, locusts, and thick darkness to
increase the pressure on Ramses. At first the King was adamant. The
Hebrews were not the only disgruntled slaves, and, if he agreed to let
them go, then other groups would want the same privilege. To protect his
building program, he had to suppress the slave rebellion at its outset.
Yet he could not discount the effect of the plagues, and grudgingly he
began to acknowledge Yahweh’s power. As an expedient attempt to restore
order, he offered to let the Hebrews sacrifice in Goshen. When this
failed, he suggested that they make offerings to Yahweh at the edge of
the Egyptian border. Moses, however, insisted on a three-day journey
into the wilderness. Pharaoh countered by allowing the Hebrew men to
make the journey, but this, too, was rejected. As his final offer
Pharaoh agreed to let the people go. He would keep the livestock,
however, as the guarantee of their return. Moses spurned the condition,
and in anger Pharaoh drove him out. After nine rounds with Pharaoh it
appeared that the deliverance of the Hebrews was no nearer, but, in
contrast to his earlier periods of doubt and frustration, Moses showed
no despair. Apparently he had an inner assurance that Pharaoh would not
have the last word.
Years and deeds » From Goshen to Sinai
Chapters 11–14 of Exodus comprise an exceedingly complex section, and at
times the traditions have contradictory statements. The drama is more
blurred than usual, and scholars vary tremendously in their
interpretation of the material. One tradition notes that Pharaoh was
shaken when death took his son and that he ordered the Hebrews to leave.
Another source indicates that Moses used the period of mourning for the
first-born son as the occasion for fleeing secretly from the country. In
either case, it is clear that Pharaoh finally had his forces pursue the
Hebrews. Although tradition interpreted the Hebrew text to claim that
about 2,000,000 people left Egypt, interpretation by critical methods
reduces the number to 15,000 or so.
The Egyptian army cornered them at the Sea of Reeds (papyrus), which
barred their exit to the east. Later Jewish tradition understood the
body of water to be the Red Sea, and this erroneous interpretation
persists today, even in some of the most recent English translations of
the Bible. Scholars disagree as to the precise location of the Reed Sea,
but, since papyrus grows only in freshwater, it was most probably a
shallow lake in the far northeastern corner of Egypt.
Hemmed in by the Egyptians, the people vented their complaints on
Moses. According to one tradition, Moses shared their uneasiness, and he
called to Yahweh for help. Another account claims that Moses confidently
challenged them to be calm and watch for Yahweh’s deliverance. A strong
east wind blew all night, creating a dry corridor through the lake and
permitting the Hebrews to cross. The pursuing Egyptians were destroyed
when the waters returned. The timing of this natural event gave the
final answer to Pharaoh’s arrogant question, “Who is Yahweh?” Safely on
the other side, Moses and his sister Miriam led the people in a victory
song of praise to Yahweh (Ex. 15:1–21). The style of the poetry is
similar to that of 14th-century Canaanite literature, and there is every
reason to believe that the poem virtually preserves the original form of
the song, with its refrain, “Sing to the Lord, for he has triumphed
gloriously; the horse and his rider he has thrown into the sea.”
The route of the Hebrews is contested by scholars, but the most
likely possibility is the southern route to Jabal Mūsā, the traditional
location of Mt. Sinai (Horeb), in the granite range at the southern tip
of the Sinai Peninsula. The journey there traversed some very desolate
country, and Moses had to contend with bitter complaints about the lack
of water and food. Finally, however, he brought the people to “the
mountain of God,” where Yahweh had appeared to him in the burning bush.
Years and deeds » The Covenant at Sinai
During the 14th century bce the Hittites of Asia Minor made a number of
treaties with neighbouring rulers who came under their control. The
agreement was not between equals, but between the Hittite king (the
suzerain) and a subordinate ruler (the vassal). In the prologue the
Hittite ruler described himself as “the great king,” the one granting
the treaty. Then followed a historical survey of relationships between
the Hittite suzerain and his vassal. Special attention to the kindnesses
shown the underling by the overlord was intended to remind the vassal of
his obligation to abide by the treaty stipulations. The basic
requirement was an oath of loyalty. Since Egypt was involved with the
Hittites in the international politics of the time, Moses probably
learned about the Hittite treaty form during his years in the Egyptian
court.
The appearance of Yahweh in a terrific storm at Mt. Sinai, narrated
in chapters 19 and 20 of Exodus, was a revelatory experience for Moses,
just as the burning bush had been. Somehow he realized that the Hittite
treaty was an accurate analogy of the relationship between Yahweh and
the Hebrews. Yahweh had a claim upon them because he had delivered them.
The only proper response to his love and care would be a pledge of
obedience to his will. Scholars have tended to date the Ten
Commandments, or Decalogue (contained in the revelation at Sinai), after
the conquest of Canaan, but there is absolutely nothing in these
guidelines to indicate their origin in an agricultural context. More
likely they were the stipulations in the covenant ceremony at Mt. Sinai.
Because Yahweh was proclaimed the only true God, one of the first
commands was appropriately a ban against all other gods. Authorities
have debated whether or not this understanding was interpreted as
monotheism. Most certainly it was not the philosophical monotheism of
later periods, but it was a practical monotheism in that any gods
recognized by other nations were under Yahweh’s control. Inasmuch as he
had brought them into being and authorized their presence in his
council, he was Lord over all gods and nations.
Another early command has been taken to mean a ban on making images
of other gods, but originally the prohibition applied to representations
of Yahweh himself. Worship in the ancient world was unthinkable without
some idol or image; therefore, the uniqueness of Moses’ restriction is
all the more evident. Yahweh is the unimageable Deity who cannot be
represented in material forms. Since Yahweh had revealed the meaning of
his name to Moses, it was fitting that the Decalogue should also
prohibit any magical or unethical use of his name. Undoubtedly the ideas
underlying the other commands came from the religious culture of his
day, but they were raised to a significantly higher level because of the
holy, righteous character of Yahweh. Moses realized that, if the
Covenant people were to have a stable, just society, they would have to
emulate their God. Concern for his creatures would mean respect for them
as persons. Murder, adultery, theft, lying, and covetousness would never
be legitimate because they lead to chaos and breakdown of the community.
Moreover, inasmuch as Yahweh had been concerned to protect the powerless
Hebrews in Egypt, they in turn would have to guarantee justice for the
orphans, widows, resident aliens, and any other disadvantaged persons
under their jurisdiction.
On confirmation of the Covenant, Moses and the people faced the task
of living by the stipulations. This called for interpretations of the
commands, and so Moses began issuing ordinances for specific situations.
Many of these he drew from the case law of his day, but insight as to
their selection and application probably came in the “tent of meeting”
(a simple sanctuary tent pitched outside the camp), where Yahweh spoke
to Moses “face to face, as a man speaks to his friend.” Breaches of the
Covenant necessitated means of atonement, which in turn meant provision
of a priesthood to function at sacrifices and in worship. In short, the
rudiments of the whole Hebrew cult, according to tradition, originated
at Sinai. At Jethro’s suggestion Moses instituted a system of judges and
hearings to regulate the civil aspects of the community. It was at
Sinai, perhaps, where the people were organized into 12 tribes.
One of Moses’ most remarkable characteristics was his concern for the
Hebrews, in spite of their stubborn, rebellious ways. When they reverted
to worshipping a golden calf, Yahweh was ready to disown them and begin
anew with Moses and his descendants. Moses rejected the offer, however,
and later, when pleading for the forgiveness of the people, he even
asked to have his own name blotted out of Yahweh’s book of remembrance
if the Lord would not forgive them.
Years and deeds » From Sinai to Transjordan
After leaving Mt. Sinai, Moses faced increasing resistance and
frustration, according to the narrative in the book of Numbers.
Apparently his virility did not diminish during these years because he
took a Cushite woman as his second wife. But Miriam, with the support of
Aaron, opposed the marriage. At Kadesh-barnea the pessimistic majority
report of the spies who had been sent out to reconnoitre thwarted Moses’
desire to march north and conquer the land of Canaan. When he urged the
people to reconsider their action they almost stoned him. But here
again, according to tradition, Moses interceded for the people with
Yahweh, who threatened to destroy them and raise up another and greater
nation. In one instance, however, tradition recalled that Moses’ anger
overrode his compassion. At Meribah, probably in the area of
Kadesh-barnea, Moses addressed the complaining people as rebels and
struck a rock twice in anger, whereupon water flowed forth for the
thirsty people. He had been angry before in defense of Yahweh’s name,
honour, and cause, but this time his anger stemmed from utter
frustration with his contentious people. Although tradition interpreted
this lapse as the reason why Yahweh would not permit Moses to enter
Canaan, the remarkable fact is that Moses was able to bear up under such
continuous pressure.
In Transjordan the new states of Edom and Moab, vassals of the
Midianites, rejected Moses’ request for passage. He wisely circled east
of them and moved north to conquer Sihon, king of the Amorites, and Og,
king of Bashan. Moses permitted some of the tribes to settle in
Transjordan, a decision that evoked opposition from the Moabites and
their Midianite overlords. They hired the Syrian diviner Balaam to put a
curse on the Hebrews, but instead he pronounced a blessing. Some
scholars interpret this as proof that Balaam was a convert to Yahwism.
If this was indeed the case, he must have reverted later on, because the
biblical tradition implies that Balaam incited his former employers to
weaken the Hebrews by religious seduction. Moses responded to the enmity
of the Midianites with a successful holy war against them not long
before his death.
As his last official act Moses renewed the Sinai Covenant with those
who had survived the wilderness wanderings. From his camp in the Jordan
Valley, Moses climbed to a vantage point on Mt. Pisgah. There he viewed
the land of promise. The Hebrews never saw him again, and the
circumstances of his death and burial remain shrouded in mystery.
Tradition claimed that Yahweh buried him in the valley opposite
Beth-peor, the shrine of the people’s apostasy.
Moses the man
Although time undoubtedly enhanced the portrait of Moses, a basic
picture emerges from the sources. Five times the narratives claim that
Moses kept written records (Ex. 17:14; 24:4; 34:27–28; Num. 33:2; and
Deut. 31:9, 24–26). Even with a generous interpretation of the extent of
these writings, they do not amount to more than a fifth of the total
Pentateuch; therefore, the traditional claim of Mosaic authorship of the
whole Pentateuch is untenable. Moses formulated the Decalogue, mediated
the Covenant, and began the process of rendering and codifying
supplemental interpretations of the Covenant stipulations. Undoubtedly
he kept some records, and they served as the core of the growing corpus
of law and tradition. In a general sense, therefore, the first five
books of the Hebrew Bible can be described as Mosaic. Without him there
would have been no Israel and no collection known as Torah.
Moses was a gifted, well-trained person, but his true greatness was
probably due to his personal experience of and relationship with Yahweh.
This former stammering murderer understood his preservation and destiny
as coming from the grace of a merciful Lord who had given him another
chance. Moses had an understanding spirit and a forgiving heart because
he knew how much Yahweh had forgiven him. He was truly humble because he
recognized that his gifts and strength came from Yahweh.
Because of the uniqueness of his situation, Moses had to function in
a number of roles. As Yahweh’s agent in the deliverance of the Hebrews,
he was their prophet and leader. As mediator of the Covenant, he was the
founder of the community. As interpreter of the Covenant, he was an
organizer and legislator. As intercessor for the people, he was their
priest. Moses had a special combination of gifts and graces that made it
impossible to replace him. Although his successor, Joshua, and the
priest Eleazar, the son of Aaron, tried to do so, together they did not
measure up to him. Later prophets were great men who spoke out of the
spirit that Moses had, but they were not called to function in so many
roles. As tradition claimed, he was indeed the greatest of the prophets,
and, as history shows, few of mankind’s great personalities outrank him
in influence.
Dewey M. Beegle
