Overview
Country, eastern Africa.
It is mostly on the African mainland but also includes the islands of
Zanzibar, Pemba, and Mafia in the Indian Ocean. Population (2008 est.):
40,213,000. Capital: Dar es Salaam; Dodoma, designated. There are more
than 120 identifiable ethnic groups; the largest, the Sukuma, are about
one-tenth of the population. Languages: Swahili, English (both
official). Religions: Christianity (Protestant, Roman Catholic), Islam
(mainly Sunni), traditional beliefs. Currency: Tanzanian shilling.
Although most of Tanzania consists of plains and plateaus, it has some
spectacular relief features, including Kilimanjaro and Ol Doinyo Lengai,
an active volcano. All or portions of Lakes Nyasa, Tanganyika, Victoria,
and Rukwa lie within Tanzania, as do the headwaters of the Nile, Congo,
and Zambezi rivers. Serengeti National Park is the most famous of its
extensive game reserves. Important mineral deposits include gold,
diamonds, gemstones, coal, and natural gas. The economy is based largely
on agriculture; major crops include cotton, coffee, corn, rice, cloves,
sisal, cashews, and tobacco. Industries include food processing,
textiles, cement, and brewing. Tanzania is a republic with one
legislative house; its head of state and government is the president.
Inhabited from the 1st millennium bce, it was occupied by Arab and
Indian traders and Bantu-speaking peoples by the 10th century ce. The
Portuguese gained control of the coastline in the late 15th century, but
they were driven out by the Arabs of Oman and Zanzibar in the late 18th
century. German colonists entered the area in the 1880s, and in 1891 the
Germans declared the region a protectorate as part of German East
Africa. During World War I, Britain captured the German holdings, which
became a British mandate (1920) under the name Tanganyika. Britain
retained control of the region after World War II when it became a UN
trust territory. Tanganyika gained independence in 1961 and became a
republic in 1962. In 1964 it united with Zanzibar, later taking the name
Tanzania, and was led by Pres. Julius Nyerere until 1985. The country
subsequently experienced both political and economic struggles; it held
its first multiparty elections in 1995.
Profile
Official name Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania (Swahili); United Republic
of Tanzania (English)
Form of government unitary multiparty republic with one legislative
house (National Assembly [3231])
Head of state and government President
Capital Dar es Salaam (acting)2
Official languages Swahili; English
Official religion none
Monetary unit Tanzanian shilling (TZS)
Population estimate (2008) 40,213,000
Total area (sq mi) 364,901
Total area (sq km) 945,090
1Includes 232 directly elected seats, 75 seats reserved for women, 5
seats indirectly elected, 10 appointed by the President, and 1 for the
Attorney General.
2Only the legislature meets in Dodoma, the longtime planned capital.
Main
East African country situated just south of the Equator. Tanzania was
formed as a sovereign state in 1964 through the union of the theretofore
separate states of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Mainland Tanganyika covers
more than 99 percent of the combined territories’ total area. Mafia
Island is administered from the mainland, while Zanzibar and Pemba
islands have a separate government administration. Dodoma, since 1974
the designated official capital of Tanzania, is centrally located on the
mainland. Dar es Salaam, however, remains the seat of most government
administration, as well as being the largest city and port in the
country.
Land
Tanzania mainland
The Tanzania mainland is bounded by Uganda, Lake Victoria, and Kenya to
the north, by the Indian Ocean to the east, by Mozambique, Lake Nyasa,
Malawi, and Zambia to the south and southwest, and by Lake Tanganyika,
Burundi, and Rwanda to the west.
Relief
Except for the narrow coastal belt of the mainland and the offshore
islands, most of mainland Tanzania lies above 600 feet (200 metres) in
elevation. Vast stretches of plains and plateaus contrast with
spectacular relief features, notably Africa’s highest mountain,
Kilimanjaro (19,340 feet [5,895 metres]), and the world’s second deepest
lake, Lake Tanganyika (4,710 feet [1,436 metres] deep).
The East African Rift System runs in two north-south-trending
branches through mainland Tanzania, leaving many narrow, deep
depressions that are often filled by lakes. One branch, the Western Rift
Valley, runs along the western frontier and is marked by Lakes
Tanganyika and Rukwa, while the other branch, the Eastern (or Great)
Rift Valley, extends through central Tanzania from the Kenyan border in
the region of Lakes Eyasi, Manyara, and Natron south to Lake Nyasa at
the border with Mozambique. The central plateau, covering more than a
third of the country, lies between the two branches.
Highlands associated with the Western Rift Valley are formed by the
Ufipa Plateau, the Mbeya Range, and Rungwe Mountain in the southwestern
corner of the country. From there the southern highlands run
northeastward along the Great Rift to the Ukuguru and Nguru mountains
northwest of Morogoro. Extending from the northern coast, the Usambara
and Pare mountain chains run in a southeast-to-northwest direction,
culminating in Kilimanjaro’s lofty snow-clad peak and continuing beyond
to Mount Meru (14,978 feet [4,565 metres]). Immediately to the west of
Mount Meru, another chain of mountains begins, which includes the
still-active volcano Ol Doinyo Lengai and the Ngorongoro Crater, the
world’s largest caldera, or volcanic depression. This chain extends
through a corridor between Lake Eyasi and Lake Manyara toward Dodoma.
Drainage
Because of its numerous lakes, approximately 22,800 square miles (59,000
square km) of Tanzania’s territory consists of inland water. Lake
Victoria, which ranks as the world’s second largest freshwater lake, is
not part of the Rift System. Although Tanzania has no big rivers, it
forms the divide from which the three great rivers of the African
continent rise—the Nile, the Congo, and the Zambezi, which flow to the
Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean,
respectively. Separated by the central plateau, the watersheds of these
rivers do not meet.
All of Tanzania’s major rivers—the Ruvuma, the Rufiji, the Wami, and
the Pangani—drain into the Indian Ocean. The largest, the Rufiji River,
has a drainage system that extends over most of southern mainland
Tanzania. The Kagera River flows into Lake Victoria, whereas other minor
rivers flow into internal basins formed by the Great Rift Valley. With
so many rivers, mainland Tanzania is rich in hydroelectricity potential.
Soils
The variety of soils in mainland Tanzania surpasses that of any other
country in Africa. The reddish brown soils of volcanic origin in the
highland areas are the most fertile. Many river basins also have fertile
soils, but they are subject to flooding and require drainage control.
The red and yellow tropical loams of the interior plateaus, on the other
hand, are of moderate-to-poor fertility. In these regions, high
temperatures and low rainfall encourage rapid rates of oxidation, which
result in a low humus content in the soil and, consequently, a clayey
texture rather than the desired crumblike structure of temperate soils.
Also, tropical downpours, often short in duration but very intense,
compact the soil; this causes drainage problems and leaches the soil of
nutrients.
Climate
Mainland Tanzania can be divided into four principal climactic and
topographic areas: the hot and humid coastal lowlands of the Indian
Ocean shoreline, the hot and arid zone of the broad central plateau, the
high inland mountain and lake region of the northern border, where Mount
Kilimanjaro is situated, and the highlands of the northeast and
southwest, the climates of which range from tropical to temperate.
Tanzania’s warm equatorial climate is modified by variations in
elevation. The high amount of solar radiation throughout the year is
associated with a limited seasonal fluctuation of temperature: the mean
monthly variation is less than 9 °F (5 °C) at most stations. Ground
frosts rarely occur below 8,200 feet (2,500 metres).
Rainfall is highly seasonal, being influenced greatly by the annual
migration of the intertropical convergence zone. Roughly half of
mainland Tanzania receives less than 30 inches (750 mm) of precipitation
annually, an amount considered to be the minimum required for most forms
of crop cultivation in the tropics. The central plateau, which receives
less than 20 inches (510 mm) per year on average, is the driest area and
experiences a single rainy season between December and May.
Precipitation is heavier on the coast, where there are two peaks of
precipitation: October–November and April–May. The offshore islands and
many highland areas have high annual precipitation totals of more than
60 inches (1,520 mm).
Frank Matthew Chiteji
Plant and animal life
Forests grow in the highland areas where there are high levels of
precipitation and no marked dry season. The western and southern
plateaus are primarily miombo woodland, consisting of an open cover of
trees, notably Brachystegia, Isoberlinia, Acacia, and Combretum. In
areas of less precipitation, bushland and thicket are found. In the
floodplain areas, wooded grassland with a canopy cover of less than
one-half has been created by poor drainage and by the practice of
burning for agriculture and animal grazing. Similarly, grassland appears
where there is a lack of good drainage. For example, the famous
Serengeti Plain owes its grasslands to a calcrete, or calcium-rich
hardpan, deposited close to the surface by evaporated rainwater. Swamps
are found in areas of perennial flooding. Desert and semidesert
conditions range from an alpine type at high elevations to saline
deserts in poorly drained areas and arid deserts in areas of extremely
low precipitation.
Because of the historically low density of human settlement, mainland
Tanzania is home to an exceptionally rich array of wildlife. Large herds
of hoofed animals—wildebeests, zebras, giraffes, buffalo, gazelles,
elands, dik-diks, and kudu—are found in most of the country’s numerous
game parks. Predators include hyenas, wild dogs, and the big cats—lions,
leopards, and cheetahs. Crocodiles and hippopotamuses are common on
riverbanks and lakeshores. The government has taken special measures to
protect rhinoceroses and elephants, which have fallen victim to
poachers. Small bands of chimpanzees inhabit Gombe National Park along
Lake Tanganyika. Nearly 1,500 varieties of birds have been reported, and
there are numerous species of snakes and lizards. In all, about
one-fourth of Tanzania’s land has been set aside to form an extensive
network of reserves, conservation areas, and national parks, a number of
which—including Serengeti National Park, the Selous Game Reserve, the
Ngorongoro Conservation Area, and Kilimanjaro National Park—have been
designated UNESCO World Heritage sites.
Deborah Fahy Bryceson
Frank Matthew Chiteji
Zanzibar and Pemba
Relief and drainage
The islands of Zanzibar and Pemba are located in the Indian Ocean.
Zanzibar is 22 miles (35 km) off the coast of mainland Tanzania; Pemba,
35 miles (56 km). Low-lying Pemba, whose highest point reaches an
elevation of 311 feet (95 metres), and Zanzibar, which reaches 390 feet
(119 metres), are islands whose structure consists of coralline rocks.
The west and northwest of Zanzibar consist of several ridges rising
above 200 feet (60 metres), but nearly two-thirds of the south and east
are low-lying. Pemba appears hilly because the level central ridge has
been gullied and eroded by streams draining into numerous creeks. On
Zanzibar Island short streams drain mostly to the north and west. The
few streams in the east disappear into the porous coralline rock.
Soils
Among the 10 types of soils recognized in Zanzibar are fertile sandy
loams and deep red earths, which occur on high ground; on valley
bottoms, less-fertile gray and yellow sandy soils are found. The eight
soil types in Pemba include brown loams; pockets of infertile sands are
found on the plains.
Climate
Zanzibar and Pemba have precipitation levels of about 60 inches (1,520
mm) and 80 inches (2,030 mm), respectively. Precipitation levels are
highest in April and May and lowest in November and December. Humidity
is high. The average temperature is in the low 80s F (high 20s C) in
Zanzibar and the high 70s F (mid-20s C) in Pemba; the annual temperature
ranges are small.
Plant and animal life
Long-term human occupation has resulted in the clearance of most of the
forests, which have been replaced with coconuts, cloves, bananas,
citrus, and other crops. On the eastern side of the islands, especially
on Zanzibar, there is bush (scrub).
Although there is some difference between the animal life of the two
islands, it is generally similar to that on the mainland. Animal life
common to both islands includes monkeys, civet cats, and mongooses. More
than 100 species of birds have been recorded in Zanzibar.
Adolfo C. Mascarenhas
People
Tanzania mainland
Ethnic groups
According to most reputable surveys, Tanzania’s population includes more
than 120 different indigenous African peoples, most of whom are today
clustered into larger groupings. Because of the effects of
rural-to-urban migration, modernization, and politicization, some of the
smallest ethnic groups are gradually disappearing.
As early as 5000 bce, San-type hunting bands inhabited the country.
The Sandawe hunters of northern mainland Tanzania are thought to be
their descendants. By 1000 bce, agriculture and pastoral practices were
being introduced through the migration of Cushitic people from Ethiopia.
The Iraqw, the Mbugu, the Gorowa, and the Burungi have Cushitic origins.
About 500 ce, iron-using Bantu agriculturalists arriving from the west
and south started displacing or absorbing the San hunters and gatherers;
at roughly the same time, Nilotic pastoralists entered the area from the
southern Sudan.
Today the majority of Tanzanians are of Bantu descent; the Sukuma—who
live in the north of the country, south of Lake Victoria—constitute the
largest group. Other Bantu peoples include the Nyamwezi, concentrated in
the west-central region; the Hehe and the Haya, located in the country’s
southern highlands and its northwest corner, respectively; the Chaga of
the Kilimanjaro region, who inhabit the mountain’s southern slopes; and
the Makonde, who reside in the Mtwara and Ruvuma regions of the
southeast. Nilotic peoples—represented by the Maasai, the Arusha, the
Samburu, and the Baraguyu—live in the north-central area of mainland
Tanzania. The Zaramo, a highly diluted and urbanized group, constitute
another ethnic group of considerable size and influence. The majority of
the Zaramo live in the environs of Dar es Salaam and the adjacent
coastline. The Zanaki—the ethnic group smallest in number—dwell near
Musoma in the Lake Victoria region. Julius Nyerere, the country’s
founding father and first president (1962–85), came from this group.
There are also Asian and European minorities. During the colonial
period, Asian immigration was encouraged, and Asians dominated the
up-country produce trade. Coming mostly from Gujarat in India, they form
several groups: the Ismāʿīlīs, the Bohras, the Sikhs, the Punjabis, and
the Goans. Since independence, however, the Asian population has
steadily declined because of emigration. The European population, never
large because Tanganyika was not a settler colony, was made up primarily
of English, German, and Greek communities. In the postindependence
period, a proliferation of different European, North American, and
Japanese expatriates connected with foreign-aid projects made Tanzania
their temporary residence.
Unlike many African countries, Tanzania does not have one single
politically or culturally dominant ethnic group, although those groups
that were subject to Christian missionary influence and Western
education during the colonial period (notably the Chaga and the Haya)
are better represented in the government administration and cash
economy.
Languages
Tanzania has two official languages, Swahili (kiSwahili) and English.
Swahili, the national language, is a composite of several Bantu dialects
and Arabic that originated along the East African coast and on the
island of Zanzibar. Swahili is the lingua franca of the country, and
virtually all Tanzanians speak it. Since independence the government and
other national institutions have promoted the use of Swahili through
literature, local drama, and poetry. Swahili is also used as the medium
of instruction in the first seven years of primary education. English is
the medium of instruction at higher levels of education and is widely
used in government offices.
In addition to Swahili, most African Tanzanians also speak the
traditional language of their ethnic group. The main languages spoken by
the Asian minorities in Tanzania are Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi, and Urdu.
Religion
Roughly one-third of the population is Muslim, the majority of whom are
Sunni; the Shīʿite population of Tanzania includes an Ismāʿīlī community
under the spiritual leadership of the Aga Khan. An additional one-third
of Tanzanians profess Christianity, which in Tanzania includes Roman
Catholic, Lutheran, Methodist, and Baptist sects; and the remainder of
the population is considered to hold traditional beliefs. The division
is usually not as clear as official statistics suggest, since many rural
Tanzanians adhere to elements of their indigenous religious practice.
Frank Matthew Chiteji
Settlement patterns
The two most important factors influencing the regional pattern of human
settlement are precipitation and the incidence of the tsetse fly. The
tsetse, which thrives on wild game in miombo woodlands, is the carrier
of Trypanosoma, a blood parasite that causes sleeping sickness in cattle
and people. Tsetse infestation makes human settlement hazardous in areas
of moderate precipitation, so areas of low and unreliable precipitation
are more densely populated than would otherwise be the case. The insect
does not pose a threat to areas of high precipitation.
Population is concentrated in the highlands of the Mbeya Range,
Kilimanjaro, and the Bukoba area west of Lake Victoria, on the
cultivation steppe south of Lake Victoria, in the moderately
high-precipitation region of Mtwara on the southern coast, and in the
urban area of Dar es Salaam—areas all located on the perimeter of the
country. The influence of the central rail line is clearly evident in
the corridor of moderate population density extending from Dar es Salaam
to Lake Victoria. Areas of especially sparse population include the
Rukwa region, situated along a portion of Lake Tanganyika in the west,
and the two large tsetse-infested areas centred around Tabora north of
Rukwa in the west and Lindi and Songea in the south.
Regional variations in agricultural productivity are strongly related
to the pressure of population on the land. Shifting cultivation, which
involves rotating crops annually and leaving some fields to lie fallow
for 20 years or more, was traditionally the means of renewing the
fertility of the soil, except in the more fertile and densely populated
highland areas. A settlement pattern of widely dispersed isolated
farmsteads resulted from this practice. As the rural population
expanded, however, fallow periods became shorter, and soil fertility and
crop yields consequently suffered. In order to raise productivity,
during the 1960s and ’70s the government tried to bring about the use of
improved agricultural methods, equipment, and fertilizer through the
nucleation of rural settlements. First, the ujamaa (or “familyhood”)
policy of the 1960s supported collectivized agriculture in a number of
government-sponsored planned settlements. These settlements were
overreliant on government finance and gradually dwindled in number. On a
much larger scale, the “villagization” program of the 1970s moved
millions of people into nucleated villages of 250 households or more,
and by 1978 there were more than 7,500 villages, in comparison with only
about 800 in 1969. Villagization was aimed not at collectivizing
agriculture but at facilitating the distribution of agricultural inputs
such as fertilizers and improved seeds as well as making social services
more accessible to the rural population.
Nearly two-fifths of the population lives in urban areas, and more
than one-tenth of the urban population resides in Dar es Salaam.
Bagamoyo and Tabora, old towns connected with the 19th-century Arab
slave trade, have stagnated. The fortunes of Tanga, the second largest
city during the British colonial period, have been tied to the export of
sisal; as that has declined, the growth of the city has slowed. Arusha,
Mbeya, and Mwanza have thrived as trading centres remote from Dar es
Salaam, and the growth of Morogoro and Moshi reflects their rich
agricultural hinterlands.
Deborah Fahy Bryceson
Demographic trends
Tanzania’s population growth rate is lower than the world average and
below that of many of the countries of sub-Saharan Africa. More than
two-fifths of Tanzanians are under the age of 15. Life expectancy, at
about 50 years, is above average for the subcontinent. Beginning in the
early 1960s, Tanzania witnessed a gradual decline in infant mortality;
in the early 21st century, infant mortality dropped below the average
rate for sub-Saharan Africa.
Deborah Fahy Bryceson
Frank Matthew Chiteji
Zanzibar and Pemba
Ethnic groups
There are several groups of Africans present on the islands. Indigenous
Bantu groups, consisting of the Pemba in Pemba and the Hadimu and
Tumbatu in Zanzibar, have absorbed the settlers who moved from Persia in
the 10th century. These groups and some of the descendants of slaves
call themselves Shirazi. There are also small enclaves of Comorians and
Somalis. Arab settlements were also established early, and intermarriage
with the local people took place. Arab arrivals in the 18th and 19th
centuries were from Oman and constituted an elite. The Omani immigrants
in the early 20th century tended to be less affluent. Asians form a very
small minority.
Languages
Swahili is the principal language in Zanzibar and Pemba. The classical
dialect is Kiunguja. Arabic is also important, because of
long-established Islamic tradition, past Arab influence, and the
presence of a large Arabic-speaking minority. Among the Asian
communities, the chief languages are Gujarati, Kutchi, and Hindustani.
English, taught in schools, is widely used.
Religion
Almost the whole of the Arab and the African peoples of Zanzibar profess
the Islamic faith. Traditional African beliefs also exist in conjunction
with Islam. Among Muslims, the Sunni sect is adhered to by many of the
indigenous people.
Settlement patterns
The rural settlements—and life in them—changed drastically after the
nationalization of land in 1964 and subsequent agricultural reforms. By
1970, large plantations of cloves and coconuts, once almost exclusively
the property of fewer than 50 Arab families, had been redistributed. The
production of food crops, especially rice, is being encouraged. Fishing
villages are still important in the east.
The city of Zanzibar is still primarily a Muslim town, although the
distinctive mode of life and culture, reminiscent of an Eastern
commercial centre, has almost disappeared since the downfall of the Arab
oligarchy in 1964. The hub of civic life is moving from Stone Town with
its narrow lanes to a new town with modern buildings and amenities at
Ngambo, the former African quarter. Kilimani, Bambi, and Chaani are
being developed into new rural towns; a similar change is taking place
in Pemba at Mkoani, Chake Chake, and Wete.
Adolfo C. Mascarenhas
Economy
The Tanzanian economy is overwhelmingly agrarian. The country’s
preoccupation with agricultural production, which increased in the 1970s
and ’80s, is a reflection of the government’s commitment at that time to
socialist development and central planning, as outlined in the Arusha
Declaration of 1967. The declaration also resulted in the
nationalization of a number of industries and public services. In the
long term, however, the centrally planned economy contributed to a
marked economic decline.
Beginning in 1979 and continuing into the 1980s, the relatively high
international oil price, the country’s declining terms of trade, and the
sluggishness of the domestic economy brought about rapid inflation and
the emergence of an unofficial market (consisting of the smuggling of
goods abroad in order to avoid taxes and price controls). Despite
attempts to cut imports to the barest minimum, the trade deficit widened
to an unprecedented level, and the balance-of-payments problem became so
acute that development projects had to be suspended. This economic
crisis forced the government to secure a loan from the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1986. The loan’s conditions required the
elimination of subsidies and price controls as well as some social
services and staff positions in state-run enterprises. In the 1990s and
2000s, the government continued to implement measures intended to create
a mixed economy and reduce the extent of the untaxable unofficial
markets.
Frank Matthew Chiteji
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
Some two-fifths of the country’s population is engaged in agricultural
production (working as independent producers or salaried farm
labourers), and agriculture accounts for approximately the same
proportion of the country’s gross domestic product. The major food crops
are corn (maize), rice, sorghum, millet, bananas, cassava (manioc),
sweet potatoes, barley, potatoes, and wheat. Corn and rice are the
preferred cereals, whereas cassava and sweet potatoes are used as
famine-prevention crops because of their drought-resistant qualities. In
some areas food crops are sold as cash crops. Agriculturalists in the
Ruvuma and Rukwa regions, for example, have specialized in commercial
corn production, and in riverine areas, especially along the Rufiji,
rice is sold.
Export cash crops are a source of foreign exchange for the country.
Coffee and cotton are by far the most important in this respect, but
other exports include cashew nuts, tea, tobacco, and sisal. Once the
source of more than nine-tenths of the world’s cloves, Zanzibar now
produces only about one-tenth of the international supply.
The villagization program of the mid-1970s was followed by government
efforts to distribute improved seed corn and fertilizers through the new
village administrations, but timely distribution of such agricultural
inputs was largely thwarted by the logistical problems of transporting
them to the villages. Nevertheless, increased yields, attributed to the
use of chemical fertilizers, have been achieved in corn production in
the southern and southwestern regions.
Tanzania’s native forests are primarily composed of hardwoods, but
softwood production is increasing. A large pulp and paper mill at
Mufindi is supplied by the extensive softwood forest nearby at Sao Hill.
Several lakes, especially Lake Victoria, are important sources of
fish. Prawns are commercially fished in the Rufiji River delta, but
coastal fishery is primarily of an artisanal nature.
Resources and power
Diamonds, gold, kaolin, gypsum, tin, and various gemstones, including
tanzanite, are mined in Tanzania. Gold is an important resource and the
country’s most valuable export. There are large exploitable deposits of
coal in the southwest, phosphate deposits in Arusha, and nickel in the
Kagera region. Natural gas has been discovered at Songo Songo Island.
Several international companies have been involved in onshore and
offshore petroleum exploration.
Imported petroleum, hydroelectric power, and coal are the main
sources of commercial energy. Firewood and charcoal are the major
domestic fuels, contributing to a growing concern about deforestation.
Many Tanzanians are unable to access the main power grid. The majority
of those connected reside in urban areas, and plans to take electricity
to villages are intended to have the added benefit of also slowing
deforestation there.
Manufacturing
Tanzania’s industry is based on the processing of its agricultural goods
and on import substitution—that is, the manufacture (often from imported
materials and parts) of products that were once purchased from abroad.
The principal industries are food processing, textiles, brewing, and
cigarette production. Production of cement, clothing, footwear, tires,
batteries, and bottles takes place as well. There are a number of steel
mills and a large pulp and paper mill. Bicycles are also manufactured.
A strategy to lay the foundation for the rapid growth of such basic
industries as steel, chemicals, rubber, and textiles was thwarted by the
national economic crisis of the 1980s. The large amounts of imported
materials, parts, and capital equipment necessary to implement such a
policy could not be paid for, owing to the country’s lack of foreign
exchange. Standby credit facilities from the IMF provided the capital
investment needed to initiate a rehabilitation of industry. Difficulty
in obtaining adequate power supply (a large proportion of the country is
not linked to the main electricity grid) remained an obstacle to the
development of manufacturing capabilities in the early 21st century.
Finance
All private banks were nationalized between 1967 and 1992, but since
then private banks (including branches of foreign-owned banks) have been
allowed to open. The state-run Bank of Tanzania operates as the central
bank; it manages the country’s finances and issues its currency, the
Tanzanian shilling. A stock exchange was incorporated in Dar es Salaam
in 1996; trading began two years later.
Trade
Tanzania’s principal exports are gold, coffee, cashew nuts, and cotton.
Of these, gold—which provided more than two-thirds of the country’s
export earnings in the early 2000s—is by far the most lucrative. Other
exports include agricultural products and materials, gemstones, and
textiles. The majority of Tanzania’s exports are traded with the United
Kingdom, although Switzerland, South Africa, and China are also
important. Tanzania’s primary imports consist of machinery, transport
equipment, and petroleum and chemical products; the majority of the
country’s imported goods are received from South Africa, the United Arab
Emirates, China, Saudi Arabia, and Japan.
Services
Tanzania’s rapidly expanding tourism sector continues to be a source of
great economic promise. Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest peak in Africa,
serves as a major tourist attraction, as does the country’s network of
national parks, reserves, and conservation areas, which together span
some one-fourth of the country. Tanzania’s beaches and coral reefs are
also attractive to tourists, and the government has increasingly
marketed its coastline and encouraged diving and snorkeling there.
Neighbouring Kenya supplies the vast majority of visitors to Tanzania,
many of whom visit the country on short day trips. By the early 2000s,
tourism accounted for almost one-fifth of the gross domestic product,
while the services sector on the whole accounted for almost two-fifths.
Labour and taxation
Some four-fifths of the Tanzanian labour force is employed in the
agricultural sector. Of that group, less than one-tenth belongs to
unions. Labour laws in mainland Tanzania and in Zanzibar are particular
to each area, and workers in Zanzibar are not allowed to join mainland
unions. Although workers are permitted to form labour unions without
authorization, many private-sector employers have adopted illegal
policies that discourage the joining or formation of unions. The Trade
Union Congress of Tanzania is the country’s only labour federation.
The value-added tax (VAT), the income tax, the excise tax, and
imports duties contribute to the national revenue. The government is
deprived of substantial tax income by informal-sector economic activity,
which is not taxed; in addition, tax collection itself is not considered
adequately efficient.
Transportation
Transport in Tanzania spans a wide spectrum, from the motorized means
made possible by roads, railways, seaports, and airfields to the
traditional carrying of loads by animals and people.
The road network extends to all parts of the country, but it is
densest along the coast and southeast of Lake Victoria. Only a fraction
of the roadways in Tanzania are paved. The Tanzam Highway, opened in the
early 1970s between Dar es Salaam and Zambia, has significantly reduced
the isolation of southern Tanzania. Another highway intersects it at
Makambako and proceeds southward through the southern highlands to
Songea. Government efforts have focused on rehabilitating the trunk-road
system, which deteriorated with a decline in the importation of
maintenance materials during the economic crisis.
Dar es Salaam port, with its deep-water berths, handles the majority
of shipping traffic at Tanzanian ports. The remainder goes primarily to
Mtwara, Tanga, and the port of the city of Zanzibar. The Tanzania
Coastal Shipping Line offers transport services along the coast; a
passenger ferry operates between Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar. In addition
to these, there are also inland ports situated on Lake Victoria by which
traffic with the neighbouring countries of Uganda and Kenya is
conducted; inland ports on Lake Nyasa and Lake Tanganyika serve to
connect Tanzania with points in Malawi, Mozambique, and the Democratic
Republic of the Congo.
Several airlines, including the national carrier, Air Tanzania,
provide domestic and international service. There are numerous airports
throughout the country, including international airports at Dar es
Salaam, Kilimanjaro, Mwanza, and Zanzibar; most scheduled international
flights land in Dar es Salaam.
The railway system dates back to the pre-World War I German-built
Central Railway Line, which bisects the country between Dar es Salaam
and Kigoma, and the Tanga-to-Moshi railway. There is also a branch
between these two lines, and another line connects Mwanza with Tabora on
the Central Line. The Tanzania-Zambia Railway Authority (TAZARA) rail
line, running between Dar es Salaam and Kapiri-Mposhi on the Zambian
border, was built with Chinese aid in the early 1970s. It provided the
main outlet to the sea for Zambia’s copper exports prior to the
political changes in South Africa in the 1990s that opened southern
transport routes for Tanzania’s landlocked neighbour.
Government and society
Constitutional framework
The Interim Constitution of 1965 established the United Republic of
Tanzania through the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, until then
separate and independent countries. A permanent constitution for the
United Republic was approved in 1977 and amended in 1984 to include a
bill of rights.
Zanzibar has a separate constitution, approved in 1979 and amended in
1985. The executive branch is composed of a president, elected by
popular vote to a maximum of two five-year terms, and a cabinet called
the Supreme Revolutionary Council. Zanzibar’s parliament, the House of
Representatives, is made up of elected and appointed members. These
political bodies deal with matters internal to Zanzibar. Since the union
with Tanganyika, some segments of Zanzibari society have occasionally
demanded greater autonomy from the mainland.
The president of the United Republic is the head of state and
commander in chief of the armed forces. The cabinet of ministers is
advisory to the president. Prior to 1995 it included two vice
presidents: the prime minister, who is appointed by the president and
acts as the leader of the cabinet, and the president of Zanzibar. Since
then an amendment to the constitution, which was approved in 1994 and
took effect after the 1995 general election, has rescinded the
stipulation that called for the president of Zanzibar to serve as a vice
president.
According to the 1984 constitutional amendments, most members of the
unicameral National Assembly are directly elected. Many seats also are
allocated to ex-officio, nominated, and indirectly elected
members—including those seats reserved for women, representatives of
mass organizations, and the president’s nominees. The National Assembly
has a term of five years but can be dissolved by the president before
this term expires.
Local government
For administrative purposes, mainland Tanzania is divided into regions.
Each region is administered by a commissioner who is appointed by the
central government. At district, division, and ward levels, there are
popularly elected councils with appointed executive officers.
Deborah Fahy Bryceson
Ed.
Justice
Tanzania’s judiciary is appointed by the president in consultation with
the chief justice. A network of primary and district courts has been
established throughout the country; right of appeal for the district
courts is to the high court. English, Islamic, and customary laws have
been absorbed into the legal system. In Zanzibar the highest judicial
authority is the Supreme Council. Muslim courts deal with marriage,
divorce, and inheritance.
Political process
By law Tanzania was a one-party state until 1992, when the constitution
was amended to establish a multiparty political process. In 1977 the
Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), which had led the colony to
independence, and the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) of Zanzibar, which had
taken power after a coup in 1964, merged to form the Revolutionary Party
(Chama cha Mapinduzi; CCM), and a new constitution was adopted the same
year. Prior to the 1992 amendment, the CCM dominated all aspects of
political life, and there was no clear separation of party and
government personnel at regional and district levels. In 1995 Tanzania
conducted its first multiparty general elections in more than 30 years
for the office of president and for members of the parliament. Although
more than a dozen opposition political movements were officially
registered and participated in the elections, the CCM continued to
control the Union government; its involvement in local government and
other local affairs, however, began to wane, particularly its
administration of the 10-cell neighbourhood watch program (with each
cell varying in size from single-family homes to large apartment
buildings). Individuals are eligible to vote at 18 years of age, and
suffrage is universal.
The attainment of independence brought with it significant changes of
attitudes toward women. TANU—and later the Tanzanian government—was
concerned with human welfare and an improved status for all age groups
and both sexes, as expressed in its policies guaranteeing equal rights
and educational opportunities. Women were encouraged to participate in
political activities, and as a result, several cabinet members are
women, while others hold senior positions in government and the private
sector. Women who played prominent roles in early nationalist activities
include Bibi Titi Mohamed and Lucy Lameck.
Frank Matthew Chiteji
Health and welfare
National and local governments support a network of village dispensaries
and rural health centres; hospitals are located in the urban areas.
Private doctors and religious organizations provide medical facilities
as well.
The emphasis of national health policy has been on preventive
medicine, including better nutrition, maternal and child health,
environmental sanitation, and prevention and control of communicable
diseases—especially HIV/AIDS, which in Tanzania was first reported in
1983 and became a serious problem in the 1990s. Although HIV/AIDS is
more prevalent in major cities and towns, it has spread to villages and
rural areas, especially those close to cities or on connecting roads and
in border towns. In response, the Tanzanian government has instituted
aggressive health campaigns to educate the public, distribute or
encourage the use of condoms, safeguard blood supplies, and discourage
risky sexual activity; these factors have likely contributed to the
decline of the HIV prevalence rate in the 2000s.
Apart from HIV/AIDS, the main communicable diseases are
poliomyelitis, leprosy, tuberculosis, dysentery, and enteric fevers.
Other health concerns include environmental diseases such as malaria,
sleeping sickness, schistosomiasis, and onchocerciasis (river
blindness). Inadequate nutrition, particularly of children, is a major
concern. Improvements in health and reduction of mortality rates have
resulted from the provision of medical care to the rural population and
from an inoculation program for children.
Frank Matthew Chiteji
Education
The government-supported education system has three levels: primary
(seven years), secondary (four to six years), and university, as well as
vocational training schools. During the mid-1970s, universal primary
education was made mandatory, which resulted in a vast increase in
primary-school children. Popular pressure for the expansion of secondary
schools has outstripped the availability of government finance. As a
result, private secondary schools sponsored by religious institutions
and, most notably, by parents themselves have expanded in number.
Universities in Tanzania include the University of Dar es Salaam (1961),
formerly part of the University of East Africa, Sokoine University of
Agriculture (1984), and Zanzibar University (1998). Extensive adult
education has focused on eradicating illiteracy, and, as a result, more
than two-thirds of the adult population is literate—above the average
for African countries but below the world average.
Cultural life
Cultural milieu
Olduvai Gorge, in the Great Rift Valley, is the site of the discovery of
some of the earliest known remains of human ancestry, dating back 1.75
million years. The ancient in-migration of Cushitic, Nilotic, and Bantu
peoples, displacing the native San-type population, resulted in a
complex agglomeration of communities practicing complementary forms of
pastoral and agricultural livelihoods. Portuguese, Arab, Indian, German,
and British traders and colonists later added to the mosaic. Today
Tanzania’s multiethnic and multiracial population practices a variety of
traditions and customs that form a rich cultural heritage.
A number of unique features located throughout the country have been
recognized as UNESCO World Heritage sites for their cultural and natural
value; among these are the rock-painting sites at Kondoa, the ruins of
the ancient ports of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, and Stone Town in
Zanzibar.
Daily life and social customs
The role of kin is central to Tanzanian social and recreational life.
Visiting kin on joyous and sorrowful family occasions is given high
priority despite the inconvenience caused by a relatively undeveloped
transport system. Educated members of the extended family are frequently
held responsible for the education and welfare of younger siblings.
The arts
Oral storytelling traditions and tribal dancing are an important part of
the cultural life of the rural population. The University of Dar es
Salaam has an active theatre arts group. Makonde carvers from southern
Tanzania are renowned for their abstract ebony carvings, and Zanzibar is
famous for its elaborately carved doors and Arab chests. Basket weaving,
pottery, and musical instrument making are prevalent in many rural
areas.
Throughout the 20th century, traditional musical themes and sounds
were coupled with a variety of influences to produce popular music. In
the 1930s music exhibiting Cuban elements was popular; in the 1960s
Congolese music, with its distinctive guitar sound and blend of Cuban
and African rhythms, was favoured. In the early 21st century rap and
reggae emerged as choice musical genres, and mchiriku, a techno-style
sound influenced by traditional rhythms, also became popular.
Cultural institutions
A number of Tanzania’s significant cultural institutions are
concentrated in Dar es Salaam. Among these are the National Museum,
which houses items excavated from the Olduvai Gorge—such as the famed
Zinjanthropus boisei skull discovered by Mary Leakey in 1959—and other
archaeological sites. Branch museums include the Arusha Natural History
Museum, the Arusha Declaration Museum, which contains exhibitions on
Tanzania’s social and political history, and the Village Museum in Dar
es Salaam, which displays traditional crafts. The national archives are
also located in Dar es Salaam, as is the library affiliated with the
university there. The Zanzibar Government Museum and Zanzibar’s national
archives are located on Zanzibar Island.
Sports and recreation
Tanzania has a highly developed system of sports education, and schools
of all levels emphasize physical fitness in their curricula. Tanzanians
enjoy football (soccer) as both spectators and players. The country’s
Mainland League is closely followed, and cities such as Dar es Salaam
and Dodoma nurse friendly rivalries on and off the field. Basketball is
also popular.
Tanzania organized a national Olympic committee in 1968 and was
recognized by the International Olympic Committee that year. Athletes
representing Tanganyika participated in the 1964 Tokyo Games, and
Tanzania made its debut at the 1968 Games in Mexico City. Although
Tanzania joined the African boycott of the 1976 Montreal Games, it has
consistently participated in the Summer Olympiad since that time,
winning silver medals for the steeplechase and the 5,000-metre race in
1980. The marathon is the event that has brought the country the most
honour, however. Long-distance runners Zebedayo Bayo and Juma Ikangaa
are national favourites.
Media and publishing
Radio is the primary medium through which the rural population receives
national and international news. The medium also has been extensively
used by the government for the promotion of adult literacy, better
nutrition, and ecological conservation. There are a number of radio
stations broadcasting in Tanzania, including Radio Tanzania and Radio
Tanzania Zanzibar, which are state-owned; Radio One, which is privately
owned; and Radio Tumaini, which is owned by the Roman Catholic Church.
Most television stations are privately owned. There are television
stations based both on the mainland and in Zanzibar. Tanzania has
government-owned and independent daily newspapers. Among those published
in Swahili are Uhuru and Majira; in English, The Democrat and Daily
News.
Deborah Fahy Bryceson
Frank Matthew Chiteji
History
Tanganyika
Early exploration
Most of the known history of Tanganyika before the 19th century concerns
the coastal area, although the interior has a number of important
prehistoric sites. The most significant of these is the Olduvai Gorge,
situated in the northwestern corner of Tanzania near the Ngorongoro
crater. In 1959, following years of excavations in the gorge with her
husband, Louis Leakey, Mary Leakey discovered the near-perfect skull of
the “Eastern Man” (Zinjanthropus boisei; now regarded as Paranthropus
boisei, a type of australopith), who inhabited the area between 2.3 and
1.2 million years ago. Available evidence from other archaeological
sites and historical records attests to the existence of numerous major
waves of in-migration onto the Tanzanian littoral over the millennia.
The earliest of these likely included traders from such locales as
Greece, Rome, Phoenicia, Arabia, Persia, and India, possibly beginning
as early as the 5th century bce and continuing into the next millennium.
The trading contacts between Arabia and the East African coast
resulted in the establishment of numerous Asian and Arab trade
settlements along the coast and in the interior of what is now the
Tanzania mainland. The coastal trading centres were mainly
Arab-controlled, and relations between the Arabs and their African
neighbours appear to have been fairly friendly. After the arrival of the
Portuguese in the late 15th century, the position of the Arabs was
gradually undermined, but the Portuguese made little attempt to
penetrate into the interior. They lost their foothold north of the
Ruvuma River early in the 18th century as a result of an alliance
between the coastal Arabs and the ruler of Muscat on the Arabian
Peninsula. This alliance remained extremely tenuous, however, until
French interest in the slave trade from the Tanganyikan coastal town of
Kilwa revived the trade in 1776. This attention by the French aroused
the sultan of Muscat’s interest in the economic possibilities of the
East African coast, and a new Omani governor was appointed at Kilwa. For
some time most of the slaves came from the Kilwa hinterland, and until
the 19th century any contact between the coast and the interior was due
mainly to African caravans from the interior.
In their constant search for slaves, Arab traders began to penetrate
farther into the interior, particularly in the southeast toward Lake
Nyasa. Farther north two merchants from India followed the tribal trade
routes to reach the country of the Nyamwezi about 1825. Along this route
ivory appears to have been as great an attraction as slaves, and Saʿīd
ibn Sulṭān himself, after the transfer of his capital from Muscat to
Zanzibar, gave every encouragement to the Arabs to pursue these trading
possibilities. From the Nyamwezi country the Arabs pressed on to Lake
Tanganyika in the early 1840s. Tabora (or Kazé, as it was then called)
and Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika, became important trading centres, and a
number of Arabs made their homes there. They did not annex these
territories but occasionally ejected hostile chieftains. Mirambo, an
African chief who built for himself a temporary empire to the west of
Tabora in the 1860s and ’70s, effectively blocked the Arab trade routes
when they refused to pay him tribute. His empire was purely a personal
one, however, and collapsed on his death in 1884.
The first Europeans to show an interest in Tanganyika in the 19th
century were missionaries of the Church Missionary Society, Johann
Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann, who in the late 1840s reached
Kilimanjaro. It was a fellow missionary, Jakob Erhardt, whose famous
“slug” map (showing, on Arab information, a vast shapeless inland lake)
helped stimulate the interest of the British explorers Richard Burton
and John Hanning Speke. They traveled from Bagamoyo to Lake Tanganyika
in 1857–58, and Speke also saw Lake Victoria. This expedition was
followed by Speke’s second journey, in 1860, in the company of J.A.
Grant, to justify the former’s claim that the Nile River rose in Lake
Victoria. These primarily geographic explorations were followed by the
activities of David Livingstone, who in 1866 set out on his last journey
for Lake Nyasa. Livingstone’s object was to expose the horrors of the
slave trade and, by opening up legitimate trade with the interior, to
destroy the slave trade at its roots. Livingstone’s journey led to the
later expeditions of H.M. Stanley and V.L. Cameron. Spurred on by
Livingstone’s work and example, a number of missionary societies began
to take an interest in East Africa after 1860.
German East Africa
It was left to Germany, with its newly awakened interest in colonial
expansion, to open up the country to European influences. The first
agent of German imperialism was Carl Peters, who, with Count Joachim von
Pfeil and Karl Juhlke, evaded the sultan of Zanzibar late in 1884 to
land on the mainland and made a number of “contracts” in the Usambara
area by which several chiefs were said to have surrendered their
territory to him. Peters’s activities were confirmed by Otto von
Bismarck, chancellor of the German Empire. By the Anglo-German Agreement
of 1886, the sultan of Zanzibar’s vaguely substantiated claims to
dominion on the mainland were limited to a 10-mile- (16-km-) wide
coastal strip, and Britain and Germany divided the hinterland between
them as spheres of influence, the region to the south becoming known as
German East Africa. Following the example of the British to the north,
the Germans obtained a lease on the coastal strip from the sultan in
1888, but their tactlessness and fear of commercial competition led to a
Muslim uprising in August 1888. The rebellion was put down only after
the intervention of the imperial German government and with the
assistance of the British navy.
Recognizing the administrative inability of the German East Africa
Company, which had theretofore ruled the country, the German government
in 1891 declared a protectorate over its sphere of influence and over
the coastal strip, where the company had bought out the sultan’s rights.
Germany was eager to exploit the resources of its new dependency, but
lack of communications at first restricted development to the coastal
area. The German agronomist Richard Hindorff’s introduction of sisal
from Florida in 1892 marked the beginning of the territory’s most
valuable industry, which was encouraged by the development of a railway
from the new capital of Dar es Salaam to Lake Tanganyika. In 1896 work
began on the construction of a railway running northeastward from Tanga
to Moshi, which it reached in 1912. This successfully encouraged the
pioneer coffee-growing activities on the slopes of Kilimanjaro. Wild
rubber tapped by Africans, together with plantation-grown rubber,
contributed to the economic development of the colony. The government
also supplied good-quality cottonseed free to African growers and sold
it cheaply to European planters. The administration tried to rectify the
lack of clerks and minor craftsmen by encouraging the development of
schools, an activity in which various missionary societies were already
engaged.
The enforcement of German overlordship was strongly resisted, but
control was established by the beginning of the 20th century. Almost at
once came a reaction to German methods of administration, the outbreak
of the Maji Maji uprising in 1905. Although there was little
organization behind it, the uprising spread over a considerable portion
of southeastern Tanganyika and was not finally suppressed until 1907. It
led to a reappraisal of German policy in East Africa. The imperial
government had attempted to protect African land rights in 1895 but had
failed in its objective in the Kilimanjaro area. Similarly, liberal
labour legislation had not been properly implemented. The German
government set up a separate Colonial Department in 1907, and more money
was invested in East Africa. A more liberal form of administration
rapidly replaced the previous semimilitary system.
World War I put an end to all German experiments. Blockaded by the
British navy, the country could neither export produce nor get help from
Germany. The British advance into German territory continued steadily
from 1916 until the whole country was eventually occupied. The effects
of the war upon Germany’s achievements in East Africa were disastrous;
the administration and economy were completely disrupted. In these
circumstances the Africans reverted to their old social systems and
their old form of subsistence farming. Under the Treaty of Versailles
(1919), Britain received a League of Nations mandate to administer the
territory except for Ruanda-Urundi, which came under Belgian
administration, and the Kionga triangle, which went to Portugal (see
Quionga).
Tanganyika Territory
Sir Horace Byatt, administrator of the captured territory and, from 1920
to 1924, first British governor and commander in chief of Tanganyika
Territory (as it was then renamed), enforced a period of recuperation
before new development plans were set in motion. A Land Ordinance (1923)
ensured that African land rights were secure. Sir Donald Cameron,
governor from 1925 to 1931, infused a new vigour into the country. He
reorganized the system of native administration by the Native Authority
Ordinance (1926) and the Native Courts Ordinance (1929). His object was
to build up local government on the basis of traditional authorities, an
aim that he pursued with doctrinaire enthusiasm and success. He
attempted to silence the criticisms by Europeans that had been leveled
against his predecessor by urging the creation of a Legislative Council
in 1926 with a reasonable number of nonofficial members, both European
and Asian. In his campaign to develop the country’s economy, Cameron won
a victory over opposition from Kenya by gaining the British government’s
approval for an extension of the Central Railway Line from Tabora to
Mwanza (1928). His attitude toward European settlers was determined by
their potential contribution to the country’s economy. He therefore was
surprised by the British government’s reluctance to permit settlement in
Tanganyika. The economic depression after 1929 resulted in the
curtailment of many of Cameron’s development proposals. In the 1930s,
there were persistent fears that Tanganyika might be handed back to
Germany in response to demands by Adolf Hitler—then chancellor of
Germany—for overseas possessions.
At the outbreak of World War II, Tanganyika’s main task was to make
itself as independent as possible of imported goods. Inevitably the
retrenchment evident in the 1930s became still more severe, and, while
prices for primary products soared, the value of money depreciated
proportionately. Tanganyika’s main objective after the war was to ensure
that its program for economic recovery and development went ahead. The
continuing demand for primary produce strengthened the country’s
financial position. The chief item in the development program was a plan
to devote 3 million acres (1.2 million hectares) of land to the
production of peanuts (the Groundnuts Scheme). The plan, which was to be
financed by the British government, was to cost £25 million, and, in
addition, a further £4.5 million would be required for the construction
of a railway in southern Tanganyika. It failed because of the lack of
adequate preliminary investigations and was subsequently carried out on
a greatly reduced scale.
Constitutionally, the most important immediate postwar development
was the British government’s decision to place Tanganyika under United
Nations trusteeship (1947). Under the terms of the trusteeship
agreement, Britain was called upon to develop the political life of the
territory, which, however, only gradually began to take shape in the
1950s. In 1953 Julius Nyerere was elected president of the Tanganyika
African Association (TAA), an organization made up mainly of African
civil servants, which had been formed in Dar es Salaam in 1929. In
early1954 Nyerere and his associates transformed the TAA from a social
organization to a political one, and later the same year the TAA became
the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), with the stated aims of
self-government and independence.
The first two African members had been nominated to the Legislative
Council in December 1945. This number was subsequently increased to
four, with three Asian nonofficial members and four Europeans. An
official majority was retained. In an important advance in 1955, the
three groups were given parity of representation on the unofficial side
of the council with 10 nominated members each, and for a time it seemed
as if this basis would persist. The first elections to the unofficial
side of the council (in 1958 and 1959), however, enabled TANU to show
its strength, for even among the European and Asian candidates, only
those supported by TANU were elected.
Independence
A constitutional committee in 1959 unanimously recommended that after
the elections in 1960 a large majority of the members of both sides of
the council be Africans and that elected members form the basis of the
government. In the 1960 Legislative Council elections, TANU and its
allies were again overwhelmingly victorious, and when Tanganyika became
independent on Dec. 9, 1961, Nyerere became its first prime minister.
The next month, however, he resigned from this position in order to
devote his time to writing and to synthesizing his views of government
and of African unity; he was succeeded by Rashidi Kawawa. One of
Nyerere’s more important works was a paper called Ujamaa—the Basis for
African Socialism, which later served as the philosophical basis for the
Arusha Declaration of 1967.
On Dec. 9, 1962, Tanganyika adopted a republican constitution, and
Nyerere became executive president of the country. The next month, he
announced that in the interest of national unity and economic
development, TANU had decided that Tanganyika would now be a one-party
state. Nyerere’s administration was challenged in 1964; an army mutiny
was suppressed in January only after the president reluctantly sought
the assistance of British marines.
Although TANU was the only legal party, voters in each constituency
were often offered a choice between more than one TANU candidate in
parliamentary elections. That this arrangement amounted to something
more than lip service to the idea of democracy was demonstrated in 1965
and in subsequent elections when, although Nyerere was reelected again
and again as the sole candidate for president, a considerable number of
legislators, including cabinet ministers, lost their seats.
Zanzibar
The history of Zanzibar has been to a large extent shaped by the
monsoons (prevailing trade winds) and by the island’s proximity to the
African continent. The regular annual recurrence of the monsoons has
made possible Zanzibar’s close connection with India and the countries
bordering the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Its proximity to the
continent has made it a suitable jumping-off point for trading and
exploring ventures not only along the coast but also into the interior.
Portuguese and Omani domination
Though the first references to Zanzibar occur only after the rise of
Islam, there appears to be little doubt that its close connection with
southern Arabia and the countries bordering the Persian Gulf began
before the Common Era. At the beginning of the 13th century, the Arab
geographer Yāqūt recorded that the people of Langujah (namely, Unguja,
the Swahili name for Zanzibar) had taken refuge from their enemies on
the nearby island of Tumbatu, the inhabitants of which were Muslim.
In 1498 Vasco da Gama visited Malindi, and in 1503 Zanzibar Island
was attacked and made tributary by the Portuguese. It appears to have
remained in that condition for about a quarter of a century. Thereafter
the relations between the rulers of Zanzibar and the Portuguese seem to
have been those of allies, the people of Zanzibar more than once
cooperating with the Portuguese in attacks upon Mombasa. In 1571 the
“king” of Zanzibar, in gratitude for Portuguese assistance in expelling
certain African invaders, donated the island to his allies, but the
donation was never implemented. A Portuguese trading factory and an
Augustinian mission were established on the site of the modern city of
Zanzibar, and a few Portuguese appear also to have settled as farmers in
different parts of the island. The first English ship to visit Zanzibar
(1591–92) was the Edward Bonaventure, captained by Sir James Lancaster.
When the Arabs captured Mombasa in 1698, all these settlements were
abandoned, and (except for a brief Portuguese reoccupation in 1728)
Zanzibar and Pemba came under the domination of the Arab rulers of Oman.
For more than a century those rulers left the government of Zanzibar to
local hakims (governors). The first sultan to take up residence in
Zanzibar was Sayyid Saʿīd ibn Sulṭān, who after several short visits
settled there soon after 1830 and subsequently greatly extended his
influence along the East African coast. On Saʿīd’s death in 1856, his
son Majīd succeeded to his African dominions, while another son,
Thuwayn, succeeded to Oman.
As a result of an award made in 1860 by Lord Canning, governor
general of India, the former African dominions of Saʿīd were declared to
be independent of Oman. Majīd died in 1870 and was succeeded by his
brother Barghash. Toward the end of the latter’s reign, his claims to
dominion on the mainland were restricted by Britain, France, and Germany
to a 10-mile- (16-km-) wide coastal strip, the administration of which
was subsequently shared by Germany and Britain. Barghash died in 1888.
Both he and Majīd had acted largely under the influence of Sir John
Kirk, who was British consular representative at Zanzibar from 1866 to
1887. It was by Kirk’s efforts that Barghash consented in 1873 to a
treaty for the suppression of the slave trade.
British protectorate
In 1890 what was left of the sultanate was proclaimed a British
protectorate, and in 1891 a constitutional government was instituted
under British auspices, with Sir Lloyd Mathews as first minister. In
August 1896, on the death of the ruling sultan, Ḥamad ibn Thuwayn, the
royal palace at Zanzibar was seized by Khālid, a son of Sultan Barghash,
who proclaimed himself sultan. The British government disapproved, and,
as he refused to submit, British warships bombarded the palace. Khālid
escaped and took refuge at the German consulate, whence he was conveyed
to German East Africa. Ḥamud ibn Moḥammed was then installed as sultan
(Aug. 27, 1896). In 1897 the legal status of slavery was finally
abolished. In 1913 the control of the protectorate passed from the
Foreign Office to the Colonial Office, when the posts of consul general
and first minister were merged into that of British resident. At the
same time, a Protectorate Council was constituted as an advisory body.
In 1926 the advisory council was replaced by nominated executive and
legislative councils.
Khalīfa ibn Harūb became sultan in 1911. He was the leading Muslim
prince in East Africa, and his moderating influence did much to steady
Muslim opinion in that part of Africa at times of political crisis,
especially during the two world wars. He died on Oct. 9, 1960, and was
succeeded by his eldest son, Sir Abdullah ibn Khalīfa.
In November 1960 the British Parliament approved a new constitution
for Zanzibar. The first elections to the Legislative Council then
established were held in January 1961 and ended in a deadlock. Further
elections, held in June, were marked by serious rioting and heavy
casualties. Ten seats were won by the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP),
representing mainly the African population; 10 by the Zanzibar
Nationalist Party (ZNP), representing mainly the Zanzibari Arabs; and 3
by the Zanzibar and Pemba People’s Party (ZPPP), an offshoot of the ZNP.
The ZNP and the ZPPP combined to form a government with Mohammed Shamte
Hamadi as chief minister.
Because of failure to agree on franchise qualifications, the number
of elected seats in the legislature, and the timing of the elections, a
constitutional conference held in London in 1962 was unable to fix a
date for the introduction of internal self-government or for
independence. An independent commission, however, subsequently delimited
new constituencies and recommended an increase in the numbers of the
Legislative Council, which the council accepted, also agreeing to the
introduction of universal adult suffrage. Internal self-government was
established in June 1963, and elections held the following month
resulted in a victory for the ZNP-ZPPP coalition, which won 18 seats,
the ASP winning the remaining 13. Final arrangements for independence
were made at a conference in London in September. In October it was
agreed that the Kenya coastal strip—a territory that extended 10 miles
(16 km) inland along the Kenya coast from the Tanganyika frontier to
Kipini and that had long been administered by Kenya although nominally
under the sovereignty of Zanzibar—would become an integral part of Kenya
on that country’s attainment of independence.
Independence
On Dec. 10, 1963, Zanzibar achieved independence as a member of the
Commonwealth. In January 1964 the Zanzibar government was overthrown by
an internal revolution, Sayyid Jamshid ibn Abdullah (who had succeeded
to the sultanate in July 1963 on his father’s death) was deposed, and a
republic was proclaimed.
Although the revolution was carried out by only about 600 armed men
under the leadership of the communist-trained “field marshal” John
Okello, it won considerable support from the African population.
Thousands of Arabs were massacred in riots, and thousands more fled the
island. Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume, leader of the ASP, was installed as
president of the People’s Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba. Sheikh Abdulla
Kassim Hanga was appointed prime minister, and Abdul Raḥman Mohammed
(“Babu”), leader of the new left-wing Umma (The Masses) Party (formed by
defectors from the ZNP), became minister for defense and external
affairs. Pending the establishment of a new constitution, the cabinet
and all government departments were placed under the control of a
Revolutionary Council of 30 members, which was also vested with
temporary legislative powers. Zanzibar was proclaimed a one-party state.
Measures taken by the new government included the nationalization of all
land, with further powers to confiscate any immovable property without
compensation except in cases of undue hardship.
The United Republic
Zanzibar and the mainland have had a close relationship that dates back
to several centuries before the Common Era. Although both were
administered separately during colonial rule, Africans from the mainland
traveled to Zanzibar for employment, and many who did so settled in the
islands permanently. At times during the struggles for national
independence, TANU in Tanganyika and the ASP in Zanzibar worked
together. The decision of the two countries to amalgamate was a natural
outcome of many years of close relationship between the people of
Zanzibar and the mainland.
On April 26, 1964, the two countries merged to form the United
Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, with Nyerere as president and
Karume as first vice president. The nascent country was renamed the
United Republic of Tanzania in October 1964. Despite unification, for
years Zanzibar continued to pursue its own policies, paying little
attention to mainland practices.
Tanzania under Nyerere
Nyerere’s chief external task was to convince the international
community, particularly the Western powers, that Tanzania’s foreign
policy was to be one of nonalignment; but the overt involvement of the
Eastern bloc in Zanzibar, as well as Nyerere’s own insistence that, to
rectify the imbalance created in the colonial era, Tanzania had to turn
more to the East for aid, did little to make the task easier. The high
moral tone taken by the president over Britain’s role in Rhodesia and
over the supply of British arms to South Africa also strained the bonds
of friendship between the two countries, with Tanzania severing
diplomatic relations with Britain from 1965 to 1968. The consequent loss
of aid from Britain was more than compensated for by help from Eastern
countries, notably from China, whose aid culminated in 1970 in the offer
of an interest-free Chinese loan to finance the construction of a
railway line linking Dar es Salaam with Zambia.
Though Nyerere fully appreciated the generous assistance his country
was receiving, he was eager to impress upon his countrymen the need for
maximum self-reliance. Political freedom, he insisted, was useless if
the country was to be enslaved by foreign investors. His views were
formulated in the Arusha Declaration of Feb. 5, 1967, which put forth
the policy of ujamaa (familyhood) and called for socialism and
self-reliance. The resources of the country, Nyerere said, were owned by
the whole people and were held in trust for their descendants. The
leaders had to set an example by rejecting the perquisites of a
capitalist system and should draw only one salary. Banks had to be
nationalized, though compensation would be given to shareholders; the
same would apply to the more important commercial companies.
Agriculture, however, was the key to development, and only greater
productivity could hold at bay the spectre of poverty. To give a fillip
to his argument, people were to be moved into cooperative villages where
they could work together for their mutual benefit.
Nyerere’s exhortations did not arouse the enthusiasm for which he had
hoped. Individuals resisted his plans for collectivization, and not even
the majority of his supporters wholeheartedly adopted his moral stand.
The cooperative village scheme failed, bringing additional pressure to
bear upon an already desperately weak economy. The sisal industry, one
of those nationalized, was badly run down by the mid-1970s because of
inefficient management.
Nyerere’s criticisms were not reserved for his own people—or yet for
the wealthy countries of the world. In 1968 he challenged the rules of
the Organization of African Unity (OAU) by recognizing the secession of
Biafra from Nigeria, and in 1975 he attacked the OAU for planning to
hold its summit meeting in Uganda, where Pres. Idi Amin was acting with
extreme cruelty. Deteriorating relations with both Uganda and Kenya
contributed to the collapse of the East African Community in 1977, which
had been established 10 years earlier to foster economic development
between the three countries.
Tense relations between Tanzania and Uganda in the early 1970s—caused
primarily by Nyerere’s continued support of Milton Obote, the former
Ugandan president deposed by Amin in 1971—led to occasional border
clashes between the two countries. Despite an agreement to cease their
hostilities, a new round of conflict was initiated in 1978 when Amin’s
forces entered northwestern Tanzania and occupied territory north of the
Kagera River; Tanzanian forces counterattacked and regained the region.
The clashes continued in the months that followed, and in April 1979,
Tanzanian-led forces proceeded to capture the Ugandan capital of
Kampala; Amin’s rule ended when he fled the country just before the city
was captured. The retention of Tanzanian troops in Uganda for several
years after Amin’s overthrow also contributed to strained relations with
some of Uganda’s leaders as well as arousing suspicions in Kenya.
Elsewhere in Africa, however, Nyerere was able to play an authoritative
role, notably in the negotiations leading to the independence of
Zimbabwe and in the formation of an organization of African states to
try to resist economic domination by South Africa.
Kenneth Ingham
Events in Zanzibar caused continuing concern for the mainland
leadership. The arbitrary arrest and punishment of anyone believed to
oppose the state gave rise to regret that the constitution of the joint
republic prevented the mainland authorities from intervening in the
island’s affairs where questions of law and justice were involved. The
failure to hold elections in Zanzibar also contrasted unfavourably with
developments on the mainland. In April 1972 Karume was assassinated by
members of the military. His successor, Aboud Jumbe, had been a leading
member of Karume’s government, and, while his policies did not differ
markedly from those of Karume, they appeared to be moving gradually
closer into line with mainland practices. The amalgamation of TANU and
the ASP under the title of Revolutionary Party (Chama cha Mapinduzi;
CCM) early in 1977 was a hopeful sign but was followed by demands for
greater autonomy for Zanzibar. This trend was checked for a short while
when Ali Hassan Mwinyi succeeded Jumbe in 1984 and became president of
the joint republic after Nyerere resigned in November 1985.
Political and economic change
Mwinyi inherited an economy suffering from the country’s lack of
resources, the fall in world prices for Tanzanian produce, the rise in
petroleum prices, and inefficient management. An acute shortage of food
added still further to his problems. Though he promised to follow
Nyerere’s policy of self-reliance, Mwinyi soon concluded that his
predecessor’s resistance to foreign aid could no longer be sustained. In
accepting an offer of assistance from the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) in 1986, Mwinyi adopted some structural reforms and furthered the
devaluation of the currency begun in 1984 by Nyerere, who also had
denationalized the state-run sector of the sisal industry in 1985.
Moreover, private enterprise had been allowed to take over other areas
of business.
In the late 1980s dissent again resurfaced in Zanzibar, culminating
in the revelation in January 1993 that Zanzibar had joined the
Organization of the Islamic Conference. Criticism on the mainland forced
its withdrawal later that year.
In May 1992 the country’s constitution was amended to provide for a
multiparty political system, and in 1995 the first national elections
under this system were held; Benjamin Mkapa of the CCM was elected
president. Mkapa continued the economic reforms pursued by his
predecessors.
Challenges into the 21st century
Beginning in the mid-1990s and continuing into the 2000s, Tanzania’s
already-tenuous economy and food supply were strained by the number of
refugees arriving from the neighbouring countries of Rwanda, Burundi,
and Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo); the country
eventually requested international aid to assist with the care of the
refugees. Meanwhile, Tanzania was the site of a terrorist act in 1998
when the U.S. embassy in Dar es Salaam was bombed; 11 people were
killed, and many more were injured.
Mkapa was reelected in late 2000 amid allegations of electoral fraud
in Zanzibar. Several violent demonstrations followed, including one in
January 2001 in which police intervention resulted in at least 40 people
dead and 100 people injured. Zanzibar also experienced an escalation in
Islamic militancy. Several demonstrations, violent attacks, and bombings
in the 2000s were attributed to a few radical organizations protesting
the government’s refusal to comply with their extremist views. In late
2004, 10 people were killed in Dar es Salaam by the Indian Ocean
tsunami; the government was criticized for not doing enough to warn the
public about the impending threat.
After more than a decade of preparation, Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya
launched the East African Community Customs Union in 2005 in an effort
to stimulate economic activity in the region. In Tanzania’s concurrent
presidential and legislative elections held later that year, former
foreign minister Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete, the CCM candidate, was elected
president; the CCM itself won a strong majority in the National
Assembly.
Kenneth Ingham
Frank Matthew Chiteji
Ed.
