Slovenia
 

Overview
Country, northwestern Balkans region, central Europe.

Area: 7,827 sq mi (20,273 sq km). Population (2008 est.): 2,029,000. Capital: Ljubljana. The vast majority of the population is Slovene. Language: Slovene (official). Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also other Christians). Currency: euro. Slovenia is predominantly mountainous and wooded, with deep, fertile valleys and numerous rivers. It is one of the more prosperous regions of the Balkans. Its economy is based largely on services and manufacturing, and forestry, livestock, and crops, including potatoes, grains, and fruits, are also important. Slovenia is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. The Slovenes settled the region in the 6th century ce. In the 8th century it was incorporated into the Frankish empire of Charlemagne, and in the 10th century it came under Germany as part of the medieval empire (later the Holy Roman Empire). Except for the period from 1809 to 1814, when Napoleon ruled the area, most of the lands belonged to Austria until the formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes in 1918. Slovenia became a constituent republic of Yugoslavia in 1946 and received a section of the former Italian Adriatic coastline in 1947. In 1990 Slovenia held the first contested multiparty elections in Yugoslavia since before World War II. In 1991 Slovenia seceded from Yugoslavia; its independence was internationally recognized in 1992. Subsequently it sought to privatize the economy, build ties with western Europe (becoming a member of both the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 2004), and confront Croatia and Italy over territorial rights.

Profile
Official name Republika Slovenija (Republic of Slovenia)
Form of government unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (National Council [40]; National Assembly [90])
Head of state President
Head of government Prime Minister
Capital Ljubljana
Official language Slovene
Official religion none
Monetary unit euro (ˆ)
Population estimate (2008) 2,029,000
Total area (sq mi) 7,827
Total area (sq km) 20,273

Main

country in central Europe that was part of Yugoslavia for most of the 20th century. Slovenia is a small but topographically diverse country made up of portions of four major European geographic landscapes—the European Alps, the karstic Dinaric Alps, the Pannonian and Danubian lowlands and hills, and the Mediterranean coast. Easily accessible mountain passes (now superseded by tunnels) through Slovenia’s present-day territory have long served as routes for those crossing the Mediterranean and transalpine regions of Europe.

The Slovenes are a South Slavic people with a unique language. For most of its history, Slovenia was largely controlled by the Habsburgs of Austria, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire and its successor states, the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary; in addition, coastal portions were held for a time by Venice. As part of Yugoslavia, Slovenia came under communist rule for the bulk of the post-World War II period. With the dissolution of the Yugoslav federation in 1991, a multiparty democratic political system emerged. Slovenia’s economic prosperity in the late 20th century attracted hundreds of thousands of migrants from elsewhere in the Balkans. In the early 21st century, Slovenia integrated economically and politically with western Europe, joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization as well as the European Union in 2004. Slovenia’s capital and most important city is Ljubljana.

Land
Slovenia is bordered by Austria to the north and Hungary to the far northeast. To the east, southeast, and south, Slovenia shares a 416-mile- (670-km-) long border with Croatia. To the southwest Slovenia is adjacent to the Italian port city of Trieste and occupies a portion of the Istrian Peninsula, where it has an important coastline along the Gulf of Venice. Italy’s Friuli-Venezia Giulia region is situated to the west.

Slovenia is mostly elevated. Outside the coastal area, its terrain consists largely of karstic plateaus and ridges, magnificently precipitous Alpine peaks, and (between the elevated areas) valleys, basins, and arable or pastorally useful karstic poljes. The only major flat area is in the northeast. Tectonic fault lines cross the country, and Ljubljana suffered a devastating earthquake in 1895.

Relief
In Slovenia four main physiographic regions can be distinguished. The first is the Alpine region, which takes up about two-fifths of Slovenia’s surface area. In the north and northwest, along the borders with Italy and Austria, are the High Alps, comprising the Kamnik and Savinja, the Karavanke (Karawanken), and the Julian Alps; the latter includes Slovenia’s highest peak, Mount Triglav, at 9,396 feet (2,864 metres). In a vale beneath Triglav lie idyllic Lake Bohinj and Lake Bled. Slightly lower than the High Alps is the subalpine “ridge-and-valley” terrain. The main subalpine range is the Pohorje, located south of the Drava River. The historical name for the central Alpine lands is Gorenjska (Upper Carniola), a name that Slovenes still use. Slovenes refer to the Mea and Mislinja river valleys as Koroška (Carinthia). On Gorenjska’s southern edge is the spacious Ljubljana basin, which contains the capital as well as the industrial city of Kranj.

Slovenia’s second major physiographic region, the Kras (Karst), a spur of the lengthy Dinaric Alps in the southwestern part of the country, is dotted with caves and underground rivers, the characteristic features of karst topography (whose term is derived from the name of the region). Although it constitutes one-fourth of Slovenia’s area, the Kras region has only a fraction of the country’s population, which is concentrated between the wooded limestone ridges in dry and blind valleys, hollows, and poljes. Water is scarce in this region. The Suha Krajina is a karstified plateau; the Bela Krajina is a transitional belt that contains plains and points toward the Subpannonia (Pannonian Plain). Most of the region is known to Slovenes by its historical names: Dolenjska (Lower Carniola) and Notranjska (Inner Carniola). Scientific study of karst terrain is a Slovene specialty, research having begun during the 18th century in Habsburg Carniola.

The next largest physiographic region (occupying one-fifth of the country) is the fertile Subpannonia; it is located in eastern and northeastern Slovenia and includes the valleys of the Sava, Drava, and Mura rivers. Its basins contain the cities of Maribor (on the Drava) and Celje (on the Savinja River, a tributary of the Sava). Subpannonia corresponds in part to the lower part of the old Austrian duchy of Styria; Slovenes call their portion Štajerska and share some traits with their Austrian neighbours. Beyond a saddle of hills known as the Slovenske Gorice is Prekmurje, a wheat-growing region drained by the Mura River in the extreme northeast of the country. It was ruled by Hungary until 1918; its main town is Murska Sobota.

The fourth principal region (occupying barely one-twelfth of Slovenia’s surface) is Primorska, or the Slovene Littoral. It overlaps what were the Habsburg regions of Trieste and Gorizia and is made up of Slovenia’s portion of the Istrian Peninsula, the Adriatic hinterland, and the Soča and Vipava river valleys. The 29-mile (47-km) strip of coast makes up Slovenia’s riviera. The city of Koper (just south of Trieste) is Slovenia’s major port.

Drainage
Most of Slovenia’s intricate fluvial network is directed toward the Danube River. The Sava originates in the Julian Alps and flows past Ljubljana toward Croatia; its narrow valley serves as a rail conduit to Zagreb, Croatia’s capital, and farther to Belgrade, Serbia’s capital. The Drava enters Slovenia from the Austrian state of Kärnten, and the Mura emerges from the Austrian state of Steiermark; they meet in Croatia and, like the Sava, ultimately reach the Danube. In the west the Soča originates beneath Mount Triglav and, after a precipitous course, reaches the Gulf of Venice in Italian territory.

The relatively steep gradients of Slovenia’s topography create fast runoff, which in turn ensures most of Slovenia copious water and hydroelectric resources. On the other hand, it also washes away valuable soil nutrients. Pollution of the rivers remains a problem.

Soils
Slovenia’s complex geology has created a pedological mosaic. The small, thick Pleistocene cover is acidic and viscid. Permeable thin brown podzols—cambisols and fluvisols—are productive if fertilized, but they cover only about one-tenth of its surface, chiefly to the northeast. The carbonate bedrock underlying much of the country produces thin lithosols suited to forest growth. There are many good alluvial soils (particularly in Subpannonia) as well as bog varieties. Karstic sinkholes and poljes are famous for having terra rossa, a red soil produced by the degradation of the underlying limestone.

Climate
Slovenia may be divided into three climatic zones. Conditions in Istria indicate a transition from the Mediterranean climate of the Dalmatian coast to a moderate continental climate. In the moderate zone the highest monthly precipitation (up to 15 inches [381 mm]) occurs in spring and autumn, and the highest temperatures (often rising above 80 °F [27 °C]) occur in June and July. Winter temperatures rarely drop below 50 °F (10 °C), but this mildness is sometimes interrupted by the strong bora, a cold northerly wind.

Central and northern Slovenia have a continental “cool summer” climate; the eastern third of the country also falls into the continental category but has warm summers. Monthly summer rainfall in the cool belt is more than 3 inches (80 mm), and high temperatures average in the upper 60s F (about 20 °C), although there are uncomfortable hot spells. The east and northeast have much less overall precipitation, and midsummer highs reach well past 70 °F (21 °C). From November to February, temperature readings below freezing occur frequently, but snow cover has become less frequent and usually melts rapidly.

Plant and animal life
Slovenia’s flora reflects the country’s physiographic diversity, especially its varying elevations. At the highest elevations below the tree line, junipers alternate with high meadowland. Lower is a central belt of coniferous and deciduous trees (birch and beech) mixed with pasturage and arable lands, and, still lower, deciduous growth including karstic heath and maquis (good for rough grazing) is found. At sea level along the Slovene Littoral is a typically Mediterranean cover of brushwood, including maquis. Fruit and vegetable areas are scattered about the country, and forests, which are noted for their mushrooms, cover about three-fifths of the terrain.

Several animal species have been given protected status. Along with others of direct economic importance, they include the reintroduced (though still rare) ibex, the European brown bear, the chamois, the wild boar, and red, fallow, and roe deer as well as standard varieties of small game. The lynx has reappeared. The Subpannonian habitat suits migratory fowl and upland birds, and the trout and grayling found in the Soča River are renowned among sport anglers. The Adriatic waters off Slovenia’s coast are not an especially favourable environment for fish.

People
Ethnic groups
About nine-tenths of Slovenia’s people are ethnically Slovene. They are descendants of settlers who arrived in the 6th century ce. Historians differ on the exact origin of the settlers, but they do agree that most of them were Slavs who migrated westward from the vast Russian Plain, probably from a locale in between the Black Sea and the Carpathian Mountains. Italians and Hungarians are Slovenia’s two main ethnic minority groups, though neither community is large. Italians live mainly in Primorska (southwestern Istria) and Hungarians principally in the northeastern Prekmurje region. Communities of Roma (Gypsies) are also autochthonous to Slovenia and are found mostly in northeastern Slovenia or scattered throughout southern Slovenia near the border with Croatia.

The disintegration of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1991 took many immigrants to Slovenia from other former Yugoslav republics (mainly from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo). Despite linguistic kinship with people from the Balkan Peninsula, the Slovenes are culturally an Alpine folk who have more in common with northern Italians, southern Germans, and the Swiss.

Languages
Slovene, the official language of Slovenia, is a South Slavic language, but it also has affinities to West Slavic Czech and to Slovak. Eastern Slovene dialects blend with Kajkavian forms of Serbo-Croatian, but literary Slovene is remote from its Croatian counterparts, and it borrows words from the German and Italian languages, which are still spoken by older generations of Slovenians. In addition, there are marked differences between the eastern Slovene dialects and the standard Slovene spoken in most of the country. Slovene is one of the few languages to have preserved the dual grammatical number (used to refer to exactly two persons or things in addition to singular and plural forms) of Proto-Indo-European. Italian and Hungarian are the other major languages spoken in Slovenia, mainly in the regions where these two ethnic communities reside.

Religion
Christianity was accepted by the Slavic tribes in the 8th century ce. The authority of a once-powerful Roman Catholic Church hierarchy was broken by the flight of conservative Catholics (including many clerics) in 1945, and religious practice was further vitiated by communism and the acceleration of industrialization and consumerism. In the early 21st century about three-fifths of Slovenes adhered to Roman Catholicism, down from four-fifths in the 1990s. An influx of Muslim and Orthodox Christian immigrants to Slovenia in the 1970s and, later, in the 1990s further altered the religious composition of the country. Many Orthodox churches are in Ljubljana and southeastern Slovenia. Most of Slovenia’s Muslim population (the second largest religious group in the country at the beginning of the 21st century) live in the capital. After much prolonged pressure from the Muslim community, the Slovenian government in 2004 approved the construction of the country’s first mosque, a decision that was met with much opposition. There are a few Protestant communities in northeastern Slovenia, and Buddhism and other faiths are practiced in some urban centres. About one-fourth of Slovenians did not specify their religion in the country’s 2002 census; many considered religion to be a sensitive issue.

Settlement patterns
Slovenia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (called Yugoslavia beginning in 1929) after World War I, and it entered a period of agricultural decline and rapid industrialization that induced people to settle at lower elevations or simply to emigrate—a process that accelerated after World War II. The expulsion of ethnic Germans following World War II, and later the collectivization of land during communist rule, also affected settlement patterns in Slovenia. Several villages were abandoned and essentially became ghost towns. (Some of the vacant dwellings from these deserted farms and villages now serve as second homes for urbanites.)

A second major change in settlement patterns occurred in the 1960s when the communist government began establishing industry in urban centres and, beginning in the 1970s, in towns as well. In cities and larger towns this shift was evident in the proliferation of high-rise housing. But though more housing was constructed, cities continued to suffer from a shortage of apartments (most of which were offered to unskilled migrant labourers from the southern republics of the Yugoslav federation). Under communist rule, efficient rail and bus systems were developed, and the majority of Slovenes who worked in cities commuted daily from the suburbs and outlying rural areas. Throughout the 1980s, when industry became more decentralized, the bulk of Slovenes still commuted to work. In general, commuting was part of the daily routine for much of the population.

At the beginning of the 21st century, Slovenia’s population remained overdispersed. Three-fourths of the country’s population centres were hamlets with fewer than 200 residents, and only about half of the population lived in urban areas. Commuting to urban jobs remained common.

Demographic trends
A comparison of 20th-century census data with Slovenia’s first official census (1857) reveals that the population of what is present-day Slovenia increased by only about 500,000 people from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century. This was partly due to emigration, which was highest in the decades prior to World War I, when about one-third of the population left Slovenia for overseas countries. Italy occupied Slovenian territory at the conclusion of World War I, and the threat of fascism drove out more Slovenians, mainly to western Europe. Accelerated economic growth during the second and third decades of the 20th century helped to stanch emigration, however; but after World War II the communist regime, coupled with a depressed economy, caused another mass migration from Slovenia. About 100,000 Slovenes left for Argentina, Canada, the United States, and Australia from 1945 to 1970.

By the second half of the 20th century, Slovenia had undergone an intense transformation from a rural to a nonagrarian society. Population growth, however, was not as great as elsewhere in Europe, owing to emigration and, until the 1970s, the absence of immigration. However, a flow of migrants from the Balkan Peninsula to the highly industrialized regions of central and western Slovenia maintained the country’s population levels. The disintegration of the Yugoslav federation in 1991 further increased the number of immigrants entering Slovenia. Moreover, the conflicts in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo brought an influx of about 70,000 refugees and asylum seekers to Slovenia. By the early 21st century, migration flows in and out of Slovenia had nearly balanced each other out, and the population of Slovenia was roughly the same as it had been in 1991. Also, about one-sixth of non-Slovenes had become Slovenian citizens.

Like much of central and eastern Europe, Slovenia has an aging population, and its birth rate is among the lowest in Europe. Life expectancy compares favourably with former communist countries in eastern and central Europe, standing at about 75 years for men and 80 for women.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the largest concentrations of Slovenes outside Slovenia resided in the Italian region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, in the Austrian states of Kärnten and Steiermark, and in the Hungarian counties of Vas and Zala. There are also smaller groups in Croatian towns and other urban centres of the former Yugoslav federation.

Economy
Drawing upon a long tradition of crafts, Slovenes began the modernization and diversification of their economy in the early 20th century. Owing in part to this head start, Slovenia made great progress under Yugoslavia’s market-oriented “self-management” form of socialism (communism). For most of the period of federation, Slovenes made up less than 10 percent of Yugoslavia’s population, yet they produced 20 percent of the country’s wealth and 30 percent of its exports. By the 1980s, however, the Yugoslav economic system had succumbed to debt and stagnation, and resentment over the Belgrade central government’s policy of distributing subsidies from the more prosperous northern republics to the less-affluent and often corrupt southern republics was probably the principal catalyst of Slovene independence. Yugoslavia’s breakup, however, deprived Slovenia of a secure market and caused economic dislocation as Slovene enterprises were forced to compete for business in a broader market at a time of worldwide recession. Intrinsic weaknesses of “socially owned” enterprises were exposed, including featherbedding, limited professional skills, poor competitiveness, undercapitalization, outmoded production methods, and resistance to innovation. Positive features included the modern infrastructure and Slovenia’s traditionally strong social discipline.

In the early 21st century the Slovene economy was based primarily on services and trade. The shift to a market economy has improved the standard of living in rural localities despite only modest changes in the traditional smallholding pattern of landownership. It also produced a small group of newly wealthy individuals, tajkuni (“tycoons”). Most of the economy has been privatized, and a significant source of income comes from the manufacture of automotive parts, pharmaceuticals, and electrical appliances.

Agriculture and forestry
Archaic Slovene farming methods began to change in the late 1700s with the introduction of modern crop rotation and new plants such as potatoes, corn (maize), beans, and alfalfa, which helped to end a cycle of famine. By the mid-20th century, dairy and meat products dominated agriculture, and cereals had been largely abandoned. Under communist rule, private plots were limited to 25 acres (10 hectares), and expropriated lands were turned over to collective and state farms. The resulting 250 “social” enterprises (collectives and state farms) were linked to food processing. They proved efficient, especially in raising poultry and cattle, but operated at high cost.

By the early 21st century, agriculture was making a relatively small contribution to Slovenia’s gross domestic product (GDP) and employing less than one-tenth of the country’s workforce. Since Slovenia produces about four-fifths of its food requirements, it is not wholly self-sufficient; however, progress in the agrarian sector has been immense. Leading agricultural crops include wheat, corn (maize), sugar beets, barley, potatoes, apples, and pears. There is also some viticulture. Formerly state-owned farms have been privatized. The majority of Slovenia’s farms are family owned. Livestock raising (especially pigs, cattle, and sheep) is an important agricultural activity. Horse breeding, particularly at Lipica—the original home of Vienna’s celebrated Lipizzaner horses—also contributes to the economy.

Timber remains crucial to the Slovene industry, but wood is often imported. Slovenia is heavily forested, with more than three-fifths of its land covered with trees. However, forests have been damaged by factory and motor-vehicle emissions, and the bark beetle has reduced the quality of wood in older forests.

Resources and power
Although limestone, which is quarried and used in construction, is abundant, mining has declined in importance in Slovenia, as resources have been exhausted and environmental restrictions have been applied. In the process many Slovene mines, including mercury, uranium, lead, zinc, and brown coal mines, have been closed, though the Velenje lignite mine is still important.

Because Slovene coal reserves have become meagre and are of declining quality, natural gas (through a pipeline from Russia) and oil have grown in relative importance as sources of energy. Fossil fuel-fired thermoelectricity provides about two-fifths of Slovenia’s power. A number of hydroelectric plants on the Drava, Soča, and Sava rivers generate about another one-fourth of the country’s total power. Nuclear power, produced at a plant in Krško (near the Croatian border), is also important, contributing about one-third of Slovenia’s power. Slovenia shares the power generated at Krško with Croatia.

Manufacturing
Slovenia’s modern industrial history began in the 19th century with the injection of capital from major cities (e.g., Vienna, Prague, and Graz) and areas under the rule of the Habsburg monarchy. By 1910 one-tenth of workers were employed in industry. The post-1918 Yugoslav market especially benefited from the Slovene manufacture of textiles and iron and other metals, the mining of coal, and the production of wood products. Small industries evolved because of good transportation, electrification, and a skilled, highly motivated labour force, so that by 1939 the number of industrial employees had doubled. Under communist rule, industry was virtually force-fed. The manufacture of metals and engines received top priority; textiles came second; and electrical machinery, a new branch, followed.

In the immediate aftermath of the collapse of communism, about half of Slovenia’s workforce was employed in the manufacturing sector, while employment in agriculture shrank to less than one-fifth. Because production had been oriented toward Yugoslavia’s needs, not all Slovene industry could compete in more-developed markets. Nevertheless, Slovenia had a well-balanced manufacturing base that included metal products, automotive parts, furniture, paper, shoes, sporting goods, electronic equipment, and textiles. By the early 21st century, Slovenia had begun to manufacture pharmaceuticals for export and specialized electronics as well. Foreign investment in Slovenia increased, evidenced by a proliferation of internationally owned vehicle assembly plants. Manufacturing contributed about one-fifth to GDP and employed about one-fourth of the labour force.

Finance
The Bank of Slovenia is the country’s central bank. It issues Slovenia’s currency, the euro, which replaced the Slovene toler in 2007. Capital controls were fully lifted upon Slovenia’s entry into the European Union (EU). Austria, Germany, France, Switzerland, and Italy are Slovenia’s leading foreign investors. There is a stock exchange in Ljubljana.

Trade
With the loss of the Yugoslav market, Slovenia’s trade goal became integration with its new main partner, the EU, and the majority of the country’s trade is with other EU members—particularly Germany, Italy, France, and Austria—as well as with Croatia. At the beginning of the 21st century, Slovenia’s trade with other former Yugoslav republics also had increased. Chief imports include machinery and transport equipment, chemical products, mineral fuels, and metals. Slovenia’s exports include automobiles and vehicle parts, electric machinery, pharmaceuticals and other chemical products, and furniture. A significant amount of Slovenia’s exports pass through the country’s Adriatic port of Koper.

Services
The service sector is the largest component of Slovenia’s economy. Tourism has greatly increased in importance since the early 1990s. Foreign visitors—many of whom simply used to pass through Slovenia on their way to the eastern Mediterranean—now take advantage of recreational opportunities such as skiing, hiking, boating, fishing, and hunting, which are plentiful as a result of Slovenia’s diverse topography. A particularly notable attraction is the system of limestone caves at Škocjan, which was designated a World Heritage site in 1986. Another draw for tourists is Triglav National Park, featuring Mount Triglav. Hot-springs and mineral-water resorts have gained popularity; one such spa, Rogaška Slatina, is housed in a Neoclassical building from the Habsburg era. Other prominent resorts include Portoro-Portorose on the Adriatic Sea and those in the Alpine towns of Bled, Bohinj, Bovec, and Kranjska Gora, which are favourite destinations for skiers, hikers, and mountain climbers. Dozens of surviving medieval structures are found in Slovenia; one of the most imposing is the Castle of Ljubljana (Ljubljanski Grad), built in 1144 on a hilltop overlooking Ljubljana. The capital city is also home to many excellent examples of Baroque architecture, including an Ursuline church and a Franciscan monastery. Visitors to Slovenia are largely from Europe (notably Germany, Italy, Austria, Croatia, and the United Kingdom).

Labour and taxation
Labour unions began to emerge in Slovenia only following the collapse of communism. About two-thirds of the labour force belongs to unions. The two largest labour unions are the Association of Independent Trade Unions of Slovenia and Independence, Confederation of New Trade Unions of Slovenia. Strikes are not common.

The central government receives a major portion of its income from a value-added tax and a progressive income tax, whereas local governments derive most of their revenue from a flat-rate income tax and property levies. On all products a unified value-added tax was introduced in the 1990s. In general, tax evasion has been considered a widespread problem in Slovenia.

Transportation and telecommunications
Slovenia’s eastern Alpine location and easily accessible transit routes have been crucial since antiquity. Vestiges of the Roman road and settlement network are still visible. During the 1840s the Habsburg government in Vienna built the monumental Southern Railroad, which passed through Slovenia on its way from the Austrian capital to Trieste.

Two major highway-rail corridors cross present-day Slovenia, one running from Iran to northwestern Europe and the other from Spain to Russia. Avtocestas (expressways) are the nexus of road travel to Italy, Austria, and Hungary. Routes leading into Croatia have been improved. In 2000 a railway line was built to directly connect Slovenia and Hungary. The Karavanke Tunnel, nearly 5 miles (8 km) long, opened in 1991 and connects Slovenia with Austria. Despite efforts to improve its highways, Slovenia suffers traffic congestion, particularly near Ljubljana and Maribor. Many of Slovenia’s rail cars have been modernized, and high-speed intercity service has been introduced, linking the cities of Maribor, Celje, and Ljubljana; however, much of the system’s track remains outdated, limiting the performance of the equipment.

The country’s principal international airport is located about 12 miles (20 km) north of Ljubljana at Brnik, and there are other airports at Maribor and Portorož. Adria Airways, the national airline, provides direct service to most major European cities.

Although Slovenia’s telecommunications market had been fully privatized by 2001, only a few companies dominate the sector. The number of Internet users in Slovenia is among the highest in Europe. Virtually all households in Slovenia have access to fixed-line telephone service, and cellular phones are prevalent.

Government and society
Constitutional framework
Slovenia’s constitution, which was adopted in 1991, established a parliamentary form of government. A president, whose role is largely ceremonial, serves as head of state; presidents are popularly elected for a five-year term and can serve two consecutive terms. The head of government is the prime minister, who is normally the leader of the majority party in the National Assembly (lower house of the parliament), with which most legislative authority rests. Of its 90 members, 88 are elected by proportional representation to four-year terms, with the remaining two seats reserved for one representative each from the Italian- and Hungarian-speaking communities. The nonpartisan National Council, which represents economic and local interests, principally performs an advisory role, but it has the authority to propose new laws, to request the Constitutional Court to review legislative acts, and to initiate national referenda.

Local government
The občina (municipality) is Slovenia’s local administrative unit. The country is divided into hundreds of municipalities, about a dozen of which have the status of urban municipality. A popularly elected mayor, municipal council, and supervisory committee govern each municipality. Local government in Slovenia is chiefly responsible for municipal services, primary education, and the administration of social and cultural programs.

Justice
Slovenia’s judiciary consists of a Supreme Court and a system of lower courts, the district and regional courts, which hear both civil and criminal cases. The High Labour and Social Court deals with individual and collective labour issues and social disputes. The Constitutional Court is the highest body of judicial authority and upholds the constitutionality and legality of the legislative acts.

Judges are elected by the National Assembly after nomination by the 11-member Judicial Council. Every six years the National Assembly also elects an ombudsman, who is charged with protecting the public’s human rights and fundamental freedoms. The Constitutional Court is composed of nine judges who are elected for a term of nine years.

Political process
All Slovene citizens age 18 and older are eligible to vote. The first free and democratic elections in Slovenia were held in April 1990. Until that time the only authorized political party was the Communist Party. Following the introduction of a multiparty system, the centre-left Liberal Democratic Party dominated the parliament at the head of various coalitions until 2004, when the centre-right Slovenian Democratic Party gained a majority in the 2004 elections and formed a coalition with the New Slovenia–Christian People’s Party, the Slovenian Democratic Party of Pensioners, and the Slovenian People’s Party. In the 2008 parliamentary elections the centre-left Social Democrats narrowly edged out the Slovenian Democratic Party.

Security
The Slovenian Armed Forces (Slovenska Vojska; SV) consist of an army, a navy, and an air force. Slovenes become eligible to serve in the country’s voluntary military forces at age 17. Conscription was abolished in 2003, the year before Slovenia became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Slovenia’s specialized capabilities within NATO include mountain warfare, demining, policing, special operations, and field medicine. Slovenian troops have taken part in many United Nations peacekeeping missions, including those in Bosnia and Kosovo in the 1990s and in Afghanistan and the Middle East in the early 2000s.

Health and welfare
The state provides most medical services, and Slovenia’s public health system is one of the best developed in central and eastern Europe, though there is a lack of physicians in some remote areas of the country and in certain specialized fields of medicine. Social services provided by the government include unemployment, disability, and pension insurance, as well as family and dependant allowances. Both the pension system and social service programs have faced problems owing to the country’s aging population and shrinking workforce. In 2000 Slovenia’s pension system was reformed to raise the retirement age and to introduce special circumstances that would allow some people to qualify for an earlier retirement. Pensioners accounted for about one-fourth of the population in the middle of the first decade of the 21st century.

The Slovene state started several social housing programs in 1996. By the early 2000s, several thousand one- and two-bedroom apartments had been built for low-income families. In general, real-estate prices in Slovenia are comparable to those in most European countries. Property is generally more expensive in the capital and along the Adriatic coast.

Education
Virtually all Slovenes age 15 and older are literate. Primary schooling is compulsory and free for all children between ages 6 and 15. Secondary schools are either vocational or academic. A diploma from a secondary school is the main requirement for admission to one of Slovenia’s three chief universities—those of Ljubljana, Maribor, and Koper (University of Primorska). The University of Ljubljana, founded in 1595 and reopened in 1919, has divisions that include the natural sciences, the social sciences, the humanities and arts, education, theology, law, medicine, and engineering. The University of Maribor, founded in 1975, is vocationally oriented. There are also several independent technical and vocational schools. In the ethnically mixed regions of Istria and Prekmurje, classes are taught in Italian and Hungarian along with Slovene.

The Slovene government finances research institutes, especially in the natural sciences and technology. A Slovene scholarly tradition dates back to the 17th-century, when the Carniolan polymath Johann Weichard Freiherr von Valvasor provided some of the first written and pictorial descriptions of the Slovene landscape, in his encyclopaedic volumes Die Ehre des Herzogtums Krain (1689; “Glory of the Duchy of Carniola”). The premier centres of research include the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (1938) and the Joef Stefan Institute (1949), the latter for scientific research.

Cultural life
Slovenes enjoy a wide-ranging cultural life, dominated by literature, art, and music. Little of the Slovene culture is known outside the country, however, for few Slovene artists have attained international recognition. Slovenes are proud of their country’s artistic accomplishments. Many European performers and tourists go to Maribor and Ljubljana to participate in and attend many musical galas.

Daily life and social customs
Easter and Christmas are major holidays in Slovenia. Easter is a weeklong observance and involves feasting, processions, and caroling. Kurentovanje, a pre-Lenten festival marking the beginning of spring and grounded in fertility rites, is celebrated in most towns. Its name is derived from the Kurent, a mythical figure who was believed to have the power to chase away winter and usher in spring. Groups of people dressed as Kurents (Kurenti) wear sheepskin, don masks and fur caps, and travel through town chasing away winter and “evil spirits.”

Summer in general is a festive time in Slovenia; the Ljubljana Summer Festival in July and August draws large crowds to its music, theatre, and dance performances, and the Kravji Bal (“Cows’ Ball”) in September celebrates the return of the bovines to the valleys. Folkloric festivals are held in the towns of Kamnik and Škofja Loka.

Traditional Slovene dishes include different type of sausages, among them are krvavice (blood sausages). Other mainstays are pršut (cured ham), cheeses, and desserts such as the gibanica, a layered pastry made with various fillings. Mushroom dishes of all kinds are popular.

The arts
Austrian archduchess Maria Theresa’s educational reforms of the 18th century produced a highly literate public. Slovene literature flourished in the late 18th and early 19th century—particularly the work of Slovenia’s national poet, France Prešeren (1800–49). The luminaries of the Modern school—novelist and playwright Ivan Cankar and the poet Oton Župančič—were the first of a long list of politically influential writers. Among the key figures between World Wars I and II were the realistic novelist Prežihov Voranc and the avant-gardist Srečko Kosovel. Poet Edvard Kocbek was prominent during and after World War II; an antifascist, he suffered at the hands of former comrades.

Slovenes’ great pride in their country’s musical accomplishments rests partly on the fact that Ludwig van Beethoven conducted the first performance of his Sixth (Pastoral) Symphony for the Philharmonic Society (now the Slovene Philharmonic Orchestra) in Ljubljana. Jakob Petelin Gallus-Carniolus, more commonly known as Jacob Handl, was one of Slovenia’s most renowned Renaissance composers. In the second half of the 20th century, the traditional music of Slovene brothers Slavko and Vilko Avsenik became popular worldwide. Their accordion-dominated folk music continues to be a model for other Slovene bands.

Slovene visual arts became internationally recognized through the works of 20th-century Impressionist painters such as Anton Ažbe (who established a private art school in Munich), Ivan Grohar, Matija Jama, Matej Sternen, and Rihard Jakopič. Early visual art in Slovenia is represented through the dozens of frescoes, carvings, and sculptures in churches and monasteries throughout the country, many dating from as early as the 12th and 13th centuries. The International Biennial of Graphic Arts is held annually in Ljubljana.

Slovene theatre also became more recognized worldwide in the late 20th century, though its origins date from Dec. 28, 1789, when dramatist Anton Tomaž Linhart translated and adapted Joseph Richter’s German comedy Die Feldmühle (“The Country Mill”) into Slovene as upanova Micka (“Micka, the Mayor’s Daughter”). In 1867 the Slovene Dramatic Society was founded in Ljubljana. The capital remains the focus of Slovene theatre; however, there are a smattering of professional theatres throughout the country, including puppet theatres and youth theatres. A small but influential film industry emerged in Slovenia after World War II.

Architecture plays a special role in Slovenia’s cultural heritage as well. Particularly renowned is architect Jože Plečnik, some of whose most impressive works are visible on the banks of the Ljubljanica River. One of the best known of these is the National and University Library, in Ljubljana. Also in the capital are his impressive Three Bridges and Central Market.

Cultural institutions
Ljubljana is the cultural capital of Slovenia. Most of the country’s cultural institutions are located there, including the Slovenian Philharmonic Building (1891), the National Gallery of Slovenia (1918), the Slovene National Theatre for Opera and Ballet (1892), the Slovene National Theatre for Drama (1992; born from the Slovene Dramatic Society), and the National Museum of Slovenia (1921). The National and University Library (1941) holds the largest collection of reference materials in the country. Cankarjev Dom (1982), a cultural and exhibition centre, hosts major concerts and international congresses. Bled Castle, located near the capital on a cliff over Lake Bled, was awarded to the bishops of Brixen in the 11th century; today it is part of the National Museum of Slovenia. The Slovenian Literary Society (1919) was established after World War I to support and foster the Slovene identity.

Sports and recreation
Like most Europeans, Slovenes have a passion for football (soccer), and there are several leagues at all levels throughout the country. Despite its short tenure—a result of the country’s relatively recent independence—the Slovene national team has had more than a little success in European and World Cup competition (it qualified for the European Cup in 2000 and its first World Cup in 2002). During the last decades of the 20th century, basketball and hockey also became popular. The national basketball and hockey teams participated in several world championships.

Slovenia has well-developed winter sports centres at Kranjska Gora and Planica, where World Cup skiing events for men are traditionally held, and at Maribor, where the women’s competitions are hosted. Summer sports are also well represented, with numerous hiking trails, dozens of Olympic-quality swimming centres, and equestrian rings, which are centred on the village of Lipica.

The 1992 Winter Olympic Games in Albertville, France, were the first in which the country’s team participated under the flag of an independent Slovenia. Previously, Slovene athletes had competed for the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes and for Yugoslavia. One of Slovenia’s most famous athletes, gymnast Leon Štukelj (1898–1999), won six Olympic medals, three of which were gold.

Media and publishing
Slovenia’s independent daily newspapers include Delo (“Work”), Slovenske Novice (“Slovene News”), and Dnevnik (“Journal”), which are published in Ljubljana, and Večer (“Evening”), which is published in Maribor. The weekly journals Mladina and Mag are politically oriented. The monthly scholarly and literary journal Nova revija (“New Review”) was influential in Slovenia’s political transition. Perhaps its most famous issue was No. 57, released in 1987 with an article titled Contributions to a Slovenian National Programme, in which Slovenian intellectuals called for independence and a democratic republic. The Nova Revija publishing house was established in 1990 and produces works in the humanities and social sciences.

Following the abolition of a state radio and television monopoly in the early 1990s, dozens of privately owned radio and television stations were established. The Slovenian Radio-Television national broadcasting service (RTV Slovenija), established in the 1920s, offers programming in Slovene, Hungarian, and Italian.

Thomas M. Barker
Anton Gosar

History

The Slovene lands to 1918

The Alpine Slavs
During the 6th century ad, ancestors of the Slovenes, now referred to by historians as Alpine Slavs or proto-Slovenes, pushed up the Sava, Drava, and Mura river valleys into the Eastern Alps and the Karst. There they absorbed the existing Romano-Celtic-Illyrian cultures. At that time the Slavs owed allegiance to the Avar khans. After the defeat of the Avars by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, a Slavic kingdom emerged under Samo (reigned 623–658) that extended from the Sava valley northward as far as Leipzig. It came under Frankish rule in 748. Over the next two centuries, Alpine Slavs living in present-day Austria and western Hungary were absorbed by waves of Bavarian and Magyar invaders, so that the Slovene linguistic boundaries contracted southward. Nevertheless, a Slovene tribal duchy, centred in Austria’s Klagenfurt basin, managed to survive for some 200 years. Though it is still imperfectly understood, ancient Carantania (or Carinthia) serves as a symbol of nationhood for contemporary Slovenes.

The Middle Ages
In the 10th century, after the partitioning of the Frankish empire, the lands in which Slovene speakers lived were assigned to the German kingdom. As part of the defense of that kingdom against Magyar invaders, they were divided among the marks, or border marches, of Carinthia, Carniola, and Styria. German lay and clerical lords arrived, along with dependent peasants, and enserfed the Slovenes, whom they called Wends or Winds. Over the next three centuries, the marches came under the tenuous authority of several territorial dynasts. In the 13th century they fell to Otakar II of Bohemia, who, like Samo, tried to establish a Slavic empire. Following the defeat of Otakar in 1278, Styria was acquired by the Habsburg family. Carinthia and Carniola fell into Habsburg hands in 1335, Istria in 1374, and the city of Trieste in 1382. Habsburg rule was based on a bureaucracy that shared power with local noble-run estates. One of these was run by the counts of Celje, who were powerful in the Middle Ages but whose lineage died out in 1456.

Modern Slovenes tend to view the coming of German rule as a national calamity, as it subjected the Alpine Slavs to steady pressure to Germanize. Nonetheless, it was from this time that they were included in the Western, or Roman Catholic, church. German episcopal and monastic foundations, along with local diocesan establishments, enriched and fructified the native Slavic culture with western European civilization. Indeed, the first missionaries to the area, arriving from Ireland in the 8th century, taught the Alpine Slavs to pray in their own tongue. The Freising Manuscripts, a collection of confessions and sermons dating from about ad 1000, are the earliest known document in what eventually became the Slovene language.

Early modern times
Along with the rest of the Habsburg empire, Slovene-inhabited lands experienced fully the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The area was left firmly Roman Catholic, but in fact Slovene national development was assisted by such Protestant scholars as Primož Trubar and Jurij Dalmatin, who in the 16th century propagated the gospel in the vernacular and even printed a Slovene translation of the Bible.

The Slovenes never lived under Ottoman rule, although Turkish invaders were only partially deflected by the Habsburg’s Military Frontier, established in Croatian lands to the south. Turkish raids occasionally penetrated even Carinthia. The failure of the Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 and Habsburg victories in Hungary ended the Turkish menace. Baroque civilization was free to permeate all of Austria, including Slovene-inhabited lands.

Economically, the Slovene lands had been incorporated fully into the system of German feudal tenure. The topography of the region militated against the development of large-scale agriculture, and the larger feudal estates typically contained substantial areas of forest. Cultivation was confined in the main to peasant holdings. Peasant rights were at times defended only with difficulty. There are records of several uprisings by both German and Slovene peasants against onerous seignorial exactions, including substantial Slovene participation in a Croatian revolt in 1573. Generally speaking, however, direct attachment to the crown meant that the Slovene lands escaped much of the economic and political upheaval that affected life among other South Slavs living under Habsburg rule. As a consequence of this and of their greater proximity to the major urban and economic centres of the Habsburg empire, the Slovenes reached relatively high levels of both literacy and technical development and achieved an early integration into a market economy. The reforms decreed by Empress Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II in the 18th century particularly improved the lot of the peasantry.

The later Habsburg era
From 1809 to 1814 a large part of the Slovene lands was included in the Illyrian Provinces of Napoleon I’s French Empire, along with Dalmatia, Trieste, and parts of Croatia. French occupation had a profound impact on the politics and culture of the area. The French encouraged local initiative and favoured the use of Slovene as an official language. Many of the changes did not survive the return to Habsburg rule, but the period contributed greatly to the national self-awareness of both the Croats and the Slovenes and aroused in some intellectuals an “Illyrian” ideal that stressed the common political and cultural interests of the South Slavs.

Moved by this ideal, the poet and philologist Jernej Kopitar published the first grammar of the Slovene language in 1808. In his position as imperial censor, Kopitar made the acquaintance of the great Serb linguistic reformer Vuk Karadžić, and he tried to apply Karadžić’s ideas concerning the standardization of Slavonic orthography to Slovene by eliminating its many Germanic accretions and stressing its South Slav origins. Kopitar’s ideas bore fruit in 1843 with the publication of the first Slovene-language newspaper in Ljubljana (or Laibach, as it was known to its German-speaking population).

The revolutionary upheavals that swept many parts of Europe in 1848 had their counterpart in Slovenia, with the formulation of the first Slovene national program: this demanded a unified Slovene province within the Austrian Empire. Vienna stifled this program, as it did rebellion everywhere, but Slovenia, like Europe, had changed. As the relics of manorialism vanished and plowmen became freeholders, Austrian nobles such as the Auerspergs lost their ancient grip. German remained the normal language for merchants and the tiny educated elite, but a Slavic bourgeoisie was growing and gradually becoming enfranchised. Change was most evident in Carniola, where by 1900 Ljubljana became truly Slovene.

In the 1890s political parties were formed, including the Progressive (Liberal) Party, the Socialist Party, and the Slovene People’s Party. The Slovene People’s Party had close links to the Roman Catholic church, which had also been instrumental in establishing large-scale cooperative movements earlier in the century. By providing credit, marketing, and other facilities to peasants and artisans, the cooperatives enabled both rural and urban Slovenes to break free from German institutions.

During World War I, Slovenes fighting in the Austrian army suffered huge losses against the Italians in incessant battles of attrition along the Soča (Italian: Isonzo) front. In May 1917, as the war turned against the Central Powers, the Slovene Anton Korošec and other South Slav deputies in the Austrian Reichsrat put forward a declaration in favour of “the unification of all territories of the monarchy inhabited by South Slavs in one independent political body, under the sceptre of the Habsburg dynasty.” Known as Trialism, this ideal of a partnership between South Slavs, Austrians, and Hungarians fell victim to the collapse of Austria-Hungary in October 1918. The next best choice seemed to be a federation of South Slav states, and Slovene political leaders collaborated in the hasty formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

 

Slovenia since 1918

Interwar Yugoslavia
At the Paris Peace Conference after the war, the Allies awarded Italy all the coastal areas that had given Slovenes access to the sea—including Gorizia (Gorica), Trieste, and Istria. The Yugoslav kingdom was given the Prekmurje region and southern Styria but only a small part of southern Carinthia. Yugoslav troops occupied much of the Klagenfurt basin, but the Allies insisted that a plebiscite be held in two zones to decide the fate of the rest of southern Carinthia. In October 1920 the more southerly zone chose Austria, so that no plebiscite was held in the northern zone around Klagenfurt; both zones were left to Austria. Almost one-third of Europe’s Slovene speakers were thus left outside the boundaries of Slovenia. Slovene speakers in Italy and Austria continued to be subject to discrimination and political pressure by the dominant majorities—as were Slovenia’s Germans between 1918 and 1941.

Incorporation into the Yugoslav kingdom also proved disappointing. Anton Korošec reached high positions in the government, but Slovene politicians overall had minimal influence in Belgrade. Strong central control—in effect, Serbian hegemony—was imposed over the kingdom in an effort to discipline its hybrid citizenry. As a “province” of Yugoslavia, Slovenia found its autonomy restricted mainly to cultural affairs. Its economy, which had already industrialized more than the rest of the kingdom, benefited somewhat from greater commercial contact with Belgrade, but progress was limited by the detachment of Slovene producers from the economically vital Habsburg centres of Klagenfurt and Trieste. Also, as one of the kingdom’s wealthiest areas, Slovenia was taxed more heavily than other regions. By the late 1930s Slovene politics was riven by political factions, including ardently Catholic conservatives, anticlerical liberals, and ever-more-militant leftists.

World War II
After the German invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, Slovenia was partitioned. Italy took the southwest, including Ljubljana; Germany annexed the north directly into the Reich; and Hungary recovered Prekmurje. Although the Slovenes had been deemed racially salvageable by the Nazis, the mainly Austrian rulers of the Carinthian and Styrian regions commenced a brutal campaign to destroy them as a nation. Resistance groups sprang up; after Germany invaded the Soviet Union, they came under the domination of the communist-led Slovene National Liberation Front. From its principal base in the forests near Kočevje, the Front combined operations against the occupiers and their Slovene collaborators in the White Guard with a ruthless struggle against potential rivals, such as members of the Slovene People’s Party. In November 1943 the Front joined Josip Broz Tito’s Partisans in proclaiming a new Yugoslavia, and in May 1945 Ljubljana was liberated. After the armistice the British repatriated more than 10,000 Slovene collaborators who had attempted to retreat with the Germans, and Tito had most of them massacred at the infamous “Pits of Kočevje.”

The communist era
Having occupied Trieste in May 1945, the Partisans hoped that its possession was assured, but the Allies forced the establishment of a Free Territory of Trieste, consisting of an Italian-administered zone in and around the city and a Yugoslav zone on the Istrian Peninsula. In 1954 Tito agreed to allow the return of Trieste to Italy. The Yugoslav zone was incorporated into Slovenia; this gave the Slovenes access to the sea and left fewer Slovene speakers outside Yugoslavia, but it also brought a small Italian minority into the republic.

As a constituent of the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia, Slovenia underwent a complete restructuring of its economy, politics, and society along Stalinist lines. Following the rupture between Tito and Stalin in 1948, however, conditions improved. Over the next two decades, Slovenia managed to achieve greater prosperity than the southern Yugoslav republics under the unique economic system known as “socialist self-management”—designed largely by Tito’s chief ideologue, the Slovene Edvard Kardelj. By the 1970s, liberalization had spurred the development of a number of local autonomy movements, especially in Croatia and Slovenia, obliging the League of Communists of Yugoslavia to reassert party control throughout the federation. Through the 1980s, as the Yugoslav economy succumbed to inflation and debt, even Slovene communists steadily lost patience with what they perceived to be profound cultural differences between them and the southern Yugoslav peoples. In May 1990 Slovenia held free, multiparty elections in which Milan Kučan, a former communist official, was elected president, and in December a referendum calling for a sovereign, independent Slovenia was endorsed by more than 90 percent of the voters. The Belgrade government—by then dominated by Serbia’s nationalist strongman, Slobodan Milošević, and by the Serb-led Yugoslav People’s Army (YPA)—began an economic blockade of Slovenia and expropriated Ljubljana’s bank assets. Slovene and Croatian proposals for a looser Yugoslav confederation were rejected by Serbia, and on June 25, 1991, Slovenia seceded from Yugoslavia.

Two days later the YPA attacked border posts that had been taken over by Slovenia. In what became known to the Slovenes as the Ten-Day War, Slovene militiamen, adopting tactics originally intended to defend Yugoslavia against invading Soviet tanks, defeated the ineptly commanded, disintegrating YPA units with minimal loss of life. The last Yugoslav soldier left Slovenia on October 25, 1991.

Karl Lavrencic
John B. Allcock
Thomas M. Barker

The postcommunist era
With independence secured, Slovenia adopted a democratic constitution on December 23, 1991. The following year Kučan became independent Slovenia’s first democratically elected president. Slovenia reoriented its politics and economy toward western Europe and forged closer bonds with the countries of the European Union (EU). Over the next decade the economy grew quickly, and Slovenia enjoyed political stability. Kučan was reelected in 1997, and from 1992 to 2002 (except for a brief period) the government was headed by Prime Minister Janez Drnovšek, who succeeded Kučan as president in 2002. For part of the period Slovenia had tense relations with two of its neighbours—confronting Croatia over territorial rights in the Bay of Piran and sovereignty over certain inland villages and at odds with Italy regarding that country’s pursuit of concessions for some 160,000 Italians who were expelled from Slovenia after 1945. There were also disputes with the Roman Catholic church involving the church’s role in Slovenia’s educational system and the return of church properties that had been nationalized by the communist government. Throughout the 1990s Slovenia, with the support of all major political parties, pursued membership in both the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the EU. In 2003, following invitations to join from both organizations, Slovenes overwhelmingly endorsed membership, and Slovenia became a full member of both organizations in 2004.

Slovenia adopted the euro in 2007 and during the first half of 2008 was the first postcommunist country to hold the EU presidency. In September 2008 the centre-left Social Democrats narrowly won parliamentary elections, thereby ending four years of government by the centre-right Slovenian Democratic Party.

Ed.