Overview
Country, East Asia, occupying the southern half of the Korean
peninsula.
It is west of Japan and includes Cheju Island, located about 60 mi
(97 km) south of the peninsula. Area: 38,486 sq mi (99,678 sq km).
Population (2008 est.): 50,187,000. Capital: Seoul. The population is
almost entirely ethnically Korean. Language: Korean (official).
Religions: Christianity (Protestant, other Christians, Roman Catholic),
traditional beliefs, Buddhism, new religions, Confucianism. Currency:
won. Most of South Korea’s land area consists of mountains and uplands;
its highest peak is Mount Halla (6,398 ft [1,950 m]) on Cheju Island.
The densely populated lowlands are heavily cultivated for wet rice. The
Naktong, Kŭm, and Han are the principal rivers. The economy is based
largely on services, manufacturing (including petrochemicals, electronic
goods, and steel), and high-technology industries. South Korea is a
republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is
the president, assisted by the prime minister. For early history, see
Korea. The Republic of Korea was established in 1948 in the portion of
the Korean peninsula south of latitude 38° N, which had been occupied by
the U.S. after World War II. In 1950 North Korean troops invaded South
Korea, precipitating the Korean War. UN forces intervened on the side of
South Korea, while Chinese troops backed North Korea; the war ended with
an armistice in 1953. The devastated country was rebuilt with U.S. aid,
and South Korea prospered in the postwar era, transforming itself from
an agrarian economy to one that was industrial and highly
export-oriented. It experienced an economic downturn beginning in the
mid-1990s that affected many countries in the area. Efforts at
reconciliation between North and South Korea, including the first-ever
summit between their leaders (2000) and reunions of families from both
countries, were accompanied by periods of continuing tension.
Profile
Official name Taehan Min’guk (Republic of Korea)
Form of government unitary multiparty republic with one legislative
house (National Assembly [299])
Head of state and government President, assisted by Prime Minister
Capital Seoul
Official language Korean
Official religion none
Monetary unit (South Korean) won (W)
Population estimate (2008) 50,187,000
Total area (sq mi) 38,486
Total area (sq km) 99,678
Main
country in East Asia. It occupies the southern portion of the Korean
peninsula. The country is bordered by the Democratic People’s Republic
of Korea (North Korea) to the north, the East Sea (Sea of Japan) to the
east, the East China Sea to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west;
to the southeast it is separated from the Japanese island of Tsushima by
the Korea Strait. South Korea makes up about 45 percent of the
peninsula’s land area. The capital is Seoul (Sŏul).
South Korea faces North Korea across a demilitarized zone (DMZ) 2.5
miles (4 km) wide that was established by the terms of the 1953
armistice that ended fighting in the Korean War (1950–53). The DMZ,
which runs for about 150 miles (240 km), constitutes the 1953 military
cease-fire line and roughly follows latitude 38° N (the 38th parallel)
from the mouth of the Han River on the west coast of the Korean
peninsula to a little south of the North Korean town of Kosŏng on the
east coast.
Land
Relief
Geologically, South Korea consists in large part of Precambrian
rocks (i.e., more than about 540 million years old) such as granite and
gneiss. The country is largely mountainous, with small valleys and
narrow coastal plains. The T’aebaek Mountains run in roughly a
north-south direction along the eastern coastline and northward into
North Korea, forming the country’s drainage divide. From them several
mountain ranges branch off with a northeast-southwest orientation. The
most important of these are the Sobaek Mountains, which undulate in a
long S-shape across the peninsula. None of South Korea’s mountains are
very high: the T’aebaek Mountains reach an elevation of 5,604 feet
(1,708 metres) at Mount Sŏrak in the northeast, and the Sobaek Mountains
reach 6,283 feet (1,915 metres) at Mount Chiri. The highest peak in
South Korea, the extinct volcano Mount Halla on Cheju Island, is 6,398
feet (1,950 metres) above sea level.
South Korea has two volcanic islands—Cheju (Jeju), off the
peninsula’s southern tip, and Ullŭng, about 85 miles (140 km) east of
the mainland in the East Sea—and a small-scale lava plateau in Kangwŏn
province. In addition, South Korea claims and occupies a group of rocky
islets—known variously as Liancourt Rocks, Tok (Dok) Islands (Korean),
and Take Islands (Japanese)—some 55 miles (85 km) southeast of Ullŭng
Island; these islets also have been claimed by Japan.
There are fairly extensive lowlands along the lower parts of the
country’s main rivers. The eastern coastline is relatively straight,
whereas the western and southern have extremely complicated ria (i.e.,
creek-indented) coastlines with many islands. The shallow Yellow Sea and
the complex Korean coastline produce one of the most pronounced tidal
variations in the world—about 30 feet (9 metres) maximum at Inch’ŏn
(Incheon), the entry port for Seoul.
Drainage
South Korea’s three principal rivers, the Han, Kŭm, and Naktong, all
have their sources in the T’aebaek Mountains, and they flow between the
ranges before entering their lowland plains. Nearly all the country’s
rivers flow westward or southward into either the Yellow Sea or the East
China Sea; only a few short, swift rivers drain eastward from the
T’aebaek Mountains. The Naktong River, South Korea’s longest, runs
southward for 325 miles (523 km) to the Korea Strait. Streamflow is
highly variable, being greatest during the wet summer months and
considerably less in the relatively dry winter.
Soils
Most of South Korea’s soils derive from granite and gneiss. Sandy
and brown-coloured soils are common, and they are generally well-leached
and have little humus content. Podzolic soils (ash-gray forest soils),
resulting from the cold of the long winter season, are found in the
highlands.
Climate
The greatest influence on the climate of the Korean peninsula is its
proximity to the main Asian landmass. This produces the marked
summer-winter temperature extremes of a continental climate while also
establishing the northeast Asian monsoons (seasonal winds) that affect
precipitation patterns. The annual range of temperature is greater in
the north and in interior regions of the peninsula than in the south and
along the coast, reflecting the relative decline in continental
influences in the latter areas.
South Korea’s climate is characterized by a cold, relatively dry
winter and a hot, humid summer. The coldest average monthly temperatures
in winter drop below freezing except along the southern coast. The
average January temperature at Seoul is in the low 20s °F (about −5 °C),
while the corresponding average at Pusan (Busan), on the southeast
coast, is in the mid-30s °F (about 2 °C). By contrast, summer
temperatures are relatively uniform across the country, the average
monthly temperature for August (the warmest month) being in the high 70s
°F (about 25 °C).
Annual precipitation ranges from about 35 to 60 inches (900 to 1,500
mm) on the mainland. Taegu, on the east coast, is the driest area, while
the southern coast is the wettest; southern Cheju Island receives more
than 70 inches (1,800 mm) annually. Up to three-fifths of the annual
precipitation is received in June–August, during the summer monsoon, the
annual distribution being more even in the extreme south. Occasionally,
late-summer typhoons (tropical cyclones) cause heavy showers and storms
along the southern coast. Precipitation in winter falls mainly as snow,
with the heaviest amounts occurring in the T’aebaek Mountains. The
frost-free season ranges from 170 days in the northern highlands to more
than 240 days on Cheju Island.
Plant and animal life
The long, hot, humid summer is favourable for the development of
extensive and varied vegetation. Some 4,500 plant species are known.
Forests once covered about two-thirds of the total land area, but,
because of fuel needs during the long, cold winter and the country’s
high population density, the original forest has almost disappeared.
Except for evergreen broad-leaved forests in the narrow subtropical belt
along the southern coast and on Cheju Island, most areas contain
deciduous broad-leaved and coniferous trees. Typical evergreen
broad-leaved species include camellias and camphor trees, while
deciduous forests include oaks, maples, alders, zelkovas, and birches.
Species of pine are the most representative in the country; other
conifers include spruces, larches, and yews. Among indigenous species
are the Abeliophyllum distichum (white forsythia or Korean abelia), a
shrub of the olive family, and the Korean fir (Abies koreana).
Wild animal life is similar to that of northern and northeastern
China. The most numerous larger mammals are deer. Tigers, leopards,
lynx, and bears, formerly abundant, have almost disappeared, even in
remote areas. Some 380 species of birds are found in the country, most
of which are seasonal migrants. Many of South Korea’s fish, reptile, and
amphibian species are threatened by intensive cultivation and
environmental pollution except in the DMZ between North and South Korea,
which has become a de facto nature preserve. Once farmland, and
subsequently a devastated battleground, the DMZ has lain almost
untouched since the end of hostilities and has reverted to nature to a
large extent, making it one of the most pristine undeveloped areas in
Asia. It contains many ecosystems including forests, estuaries, and
wetlands frequented by migratory birds. The zone serves as a sanctuary
for hundreds of bird species, among them the endangered white-naped and
red-crowned cranes, and is home to dozens of fish species and Asiatic
black bears, lynxes, and other mammals.
People
Ethnic groups
The Korean people originally may have had links with the people of
Central Asia, the Lake Baikal region of Siberia, Mongolia, and the
coastal areas of the Yellow Sea. Tools of Paleolithic type and other
artifacts found in Sokch’ang, near Kongju, are quite similar to those of
the Lake Baikal and Mongolian areas. The population of South Korea is
highly homogeneous; almost the entire population is ethnically Korean,
and there is a small minority of ethnic Chinese permanent residents. The
number of foreigners is growing, especially in the major urban areas;
people from Japan, the United States (including members of the
military), and China make up the largest foreign populations, although
they still constitute only small fractions. Many foreign nationals are
employed in business or the diplomatic corps, and tens of thousands of
workers come from China and Southeast Asia.
Languages
All Koreans speak the Korean language, which is often classified as
one of the Altaic languages, has affinities to Japanese, and contains
many Chinese loanwords. The Korean script, known in South Korea as
Hangul (Han’gŭl) and in North Korea as Chosŏn muntcha, is composed of
phonetic symbols for the 10 vowels and 14 consonants. Korean often is
written as a combination of Chinese ideograms and Hangul in South Korea,
although the trend is toward using less Chinese. A large number of
English words and phrases have crept into the language—either intact or
modified by local usage—as a result of the American presence in the
country since 1950.
Religion
Freedom of religion is constitutionally guaranteed in South Korea,
and there is no national religion. There also is little uniformity of
religious belief, a situation that often is confusing to outside
observers. Historically, several religions prevailed successively:
shamanism (the religious belief in gods, demons, and ancestral spirits
responsive to a priest, or shaman), Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism.
None of these religions was abandoned, however, when one supplanted
another in dominance, and all have had a role in the country’s
sociocultural development. Thus, the rites of shamanism (which has
existed in Korea since ancient times) are still practiced by many. The
principles and social outlook of Confucianism are still much in evidence
in Korean daily life and family relationships, and Buddhism remains
influential—even among people who may be nominally Christian, for
example. More than two-fifths of the population professes Christianity,
with Protestants (particularly Presbyterians and Methodists),
independent Christians, and Roman Catholics the largest groups.
One-sixth of the population is Buddhist.
Christianity is relatively new in Korea, Roman Catholic missionaries
having reached the peninsula only in the late 18th century, and their
Protestant counterparts a century later. Christianity has had a profound
effect on the modernization of Korean society. Buddhism was first
introduced in the 4th century ce and was the official religion of the
Koryŏ dynasty, which began in 918. About one-sixth of the population
adheres to so-called new religions. These include Wŏnbulgyo (Wŏn
Buddhism), Taejonggyo (“Great Ancestral Religion”), and Ch’ŏndogyo.
Ch’ŏndogyo (“Teaching of the Heavenly Way”), originally known as Tonghak
(“Eastern Learning”), is a blend of Buddhism, Confucianism,
Christianity, and even Daoism; it spread widely in the latter part of
the 19th century. Shamanism and traditional geomancy (p’ungsu) persist,
though their practices usually are limited to certain occasions, such as
funerals. Confucianism was the basis of national ethics during the
Chosŏn (Yi) dynasty (1392–1910); though the number of its official
adherents is now small, most Korean families still follow its
principles, including ancestor worship.
Settlement patterns
Agglomerated villages are common in river valleys and coastal
lowlands in rural areas, ranging from a few houses to several hundred.
Villages are frequently located along the foothills facing toward the
south, backed by hills that give protection from the severe northwestern
winter winds. Small clustered fishing villages are found along the
coastline. In contrast to the lowlands, settlements in mountain areas
are usually scattered. The pace of urbanization in South Korea since
1960 has caused considerable depopulation of rural areas, and the
traditional rural lifestyle has been slowly fading away.
In contrast to rural areas, urban populations have grown enormously.
Seoul, the political, economic, and cultural centre of the country, is
by far the largest city; satellite cities around Seoul—notably Anyang,
Sŏngnam, Suwŏn, and Puch’ŏn—also have grown rapidly, forming an
extensive conurbation (Greater Seoul) to the south of the city. New
towns around Seoul such as Kwach’ŏn, Pundang, Ilsan (now
administratively part of Koyang [Goyang] city), and Sanbon (part of
Kunp’o [Gunpo] city) were constructed in the 1970s and ’80s. In addition
to Seoul, other cities with populations of at least one million are
Pusan, Inch’ŏn, Taegu, Taejŏn, Kwangju, and Ulsan. The populations of
most of the small and medium-size cities serving as rural service
centres, however, generally have been stagnating.
Demographic trends
South Korea’s population more than doubled over the second half of
the 20th century. From 1960, however, birth rates decreased rapidly, and
the population growth rate was almost negligible by the beginning of the
21st century. During the same period, mortality rates also slowed,
reflecting an overall increase in living standards.
The rapid increase in the urban population and the resultant
depopulation of vast rural areas are South Korea’s main demographic
issues. More than four-fifths of the population is classified as urban;
roughly half the population lives in the country’s seven largest cities.
Thus, although the country’s rate of population growth is low, its
overall population density is high—some two and a half times that of
North Korea—with huge concentrations of people in the major cities.
Large numbers of Koreans emigrated before World War II: those from
northern Korea to Manchuria (northeastern China), and those from
southern Korea to Japan. It is estimated that in 1945 some two million
Koreans lived in Manchuria and Siberia and about the same number in
Japan. About half of the Koreans in Japan returned to South Korea just
after 1945. The most important migration, however, was the
north-to-south movement of people after World War II, especially the
movement that occurred during and after the Korean War. About two
million people migrated to South Korea from the North during that
period, settling largely in the major cities. In addition to creating
large resident populations in China and Japan, Koreans have emigrated to
many other countries, notably the United States and Canada.
Economy
The South Korean economy has grown remarkably since the early
1960s. In that time, South Korea transformed itself from a poor,
agrarian society to one of the world’s most highly industrialized
nations. This growth was driven primarily by the development of
export-oriented industries and the abundance of highly skilled and
educated labour, fostered by strong government support. Government and
business leaders together fashioned a strategy of targeting specific
industries for development, and beginning in 1962 this strategy was
implemented in a series of economic development plans. The first
targeted industries were textiles and light manufacturing, followed in
the 1970s by such heavy industries as iron and steel and chemicals.
Still later, the focus shifted to such high-technology industries as
automobiles, electronics, and information technology.
The government exercised strong controls on industrial development,
giving most support to the large-scale projects of the emerging giant
corporate conglomerates called chaebŏl. As a result, small and
medium-size industries that were privately managed became increasingly
difficult to finance, and many of these became, in essence, dependent
subcontractors of the chaebŏl.
Korea joined the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) in 1996 and took a step closer to becoming an
economically advanced country. In the early 21st century, Korea’s per
capita gross national income far exceeded those of most of its
neighbours, other than Japan and Taiwan. These notable accomplishments,
however, have at times been overshadowed by economic difficulties caused
by both external and domestic factors..
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
Less than one-fourth of the republic’s area is cultivated. Along
with the decrease in farm population, the proportion of national income
derived from agriculture has decreased to a fraction of what it was in
the early 1950s. Improvements in farm productivity were long hampered
because fields typically are divided into tiny plots that are cultivated
largely by manual labour and animal power. In addition, the decrease and
aging of the rural population has caused a serious farm-labour shortage.
However, more recently productivity has been improving as greater
emphasis has been given to mechanization, specialization, and
commercialization.
Rice is the most important crop. Cultivation of a wide variety of
fruits including tangerines and other citrus fruits, pears, persimmons,
and strawberries, along with vegetables (especially cabbages) and
flowers, has become increasingly important. Although it constitutes only
a small portion of Korea’s agricultural production, the country’s
ginseng is valued for its superior quality and is exported. Barley,
wheat, soybeans, and potatoes are also cultivated, but most of the
country’s needs for these commodities must be imported.
Livestock and dairying are also important. The top three agricultural
products after rice are pork, beef, and milk. The number of livestock
farms fell from 1990 through the early 21st century even as production
of dairy products and meat, especially pork, increased. Consumption of
meat and dairy products also grew during the same period.
From the 1970s successful reforestation efforts were mounted in areas
previously denuded. Domestic timber production, however, supplies only a
negligible fraction of demand. Logging, mainly of coniferous trees, is
limited to the mountain areas of Kangwŏn and North Kyŏngsang provinces.
A large plywood and veneer industry has been developed, based on
imported wood.
Fishing has long been important for supplying protein-rich foods and
has emerged as a significant export source. South Korea has become one
of the world’s major deep-sea fishing nations. Coastal fisheries and
inland aquaculture are also well developed.
Resources and power
Mineral resources in South Korea are meagre. The most important
reserves are of anthracite coal, iron ore, graphite, gold, silver,
tungsten, lead, and zinc, which together constitute some two-thirds of
the total value of mineral resources. Deposits of graphite and tungsten
are among the largest in the world. Most mining activity centres around
the extraction of coal and iron ore. All of the country’s crude
petroleum requirements and most of its metallic mineral needs (including
iron ore) are met by imports.
Thermal electric-power generation accounts for more than half of the
power produced. Since the first oil refinery started to produce
petroleum products in 1964, power stations have changed over gradually
from coal to oil. Hydroelectricity constitutes only a small proportion
of overall electric-power production; most stations are located along
the Han River, not far from Seoul. Nuclear power generation, however,
has become increasingly important.
Manufacturing
Textiles and other labour-intensive industries have declined from
their former preeminence in the national economy, although they remain
important, especially in export trade. Heavy industries, including
chemicals, metals, machinery, and petroleum refining, are highly
developed. Industries that are even more capital- and
technology-intensive grew to importance in the late 20th century—notably
shipbuilding, motor vehicles, and electronic equipment. Emphasis was
given to such high-technology industries as electronics, bioengineering,
and aerospace, and the service industry grew markedly. Increasing focus
has been placed on the rise of information technology and the promotion
of venture-capital investment. Much of the country’s manufacturing is
centred on Seoul and its surrounding region, while heavy industry is
largely based in the southeast; notable among the latter enterprises is
the concentration of steel manufacturers at P’ohang and Kwangyang, in
the southeast.
Finance
The Korean won is the official currency. The government-owned Bank
of Korea, headquartered in Seoul, is the country’s central bank, issuing
currency and overseeing all banking activity. All banks were
nationalized in the early 1960s, but by the early 1990s these largely
had been returned to private ownership. Foreign branch banking has been
allowed in South Korea since the 1960s, and in 1992 foreigners began
trading on the Korea Stock Exchange in Seoul.
South Korea borrowed heavily on international financial markets to
supply capital for its industrial expansion, but the success of its
exports allowed it to repay much of its debt. However, the accumulation
of a staggering amount of foreign debt and excessive industrial
expansion by major conglomerates caused severe economic difficulties in
the late 1990s. Government and business leaders jointly created reforms,
such as the restructuring of foreign debt and a bailout agreement with
the International Monetary Fund, to create a more stable economic
structure.
Trade
The country generally has maintained a positive balance in annual
trade. The major imports are machinery, mineral fuels, manufactured
goods, and such crude materials as textile fibres and metal ores and
scrap. Principal exports include machinery, electronics, textiles,
transportation equipment (notably, automobiles), and clothing and
footwear. South Korea’s principal trading partners are the United
States, Japan, members of the European Union, and Southeast Asian
countries.
Services
Some one-fifth of the labour force is employed in the service
sector, which contributes roughly one-tenth of the gross domestic
product. Tourism alone constitutes a significant portion of this amount
annually. The majority of visitors come from other Asian
countries—mostly from Japan and, to a lesser extent, from China—although
the number of tourists from the United States also has been appreciable.
Tourists are drawn by South Korea’s many palaces and other historical
attractions, religious sites, including Buddhist temples, and natural
beauty. The increasing international recognition of South Korea’s
popular culture, such as music, films, and television dramas, also has
generated tourist interest.
Labour and taxation
Labour unions were able to win significant increases in wages during
the 1980s, which improved the lot of workers and produced a
corresponding growth in domestic consumption. Higher labour costs,
however, contributed to a decline in international competitiveness in
such labour-intensive activities as textile manufacture.
Taxes provide nearly four-fifths of government revenue and are
imposed by both national and local governments. The largest amount comes
from value-added tax and, after that, corporate income tax. Individual
income, the third largest source of revenue, is taxed according to a
progressive scale. In order to attract foreign investment, the
government provides such tax incentives as limited-time exemption from a
number of national and local taxes to certain foreign businesses and
investors.
Transportation
In the first decade after the establishment of the republic, South
Korea’s transportation system was expanded and improved considerably. A
modern highway network and nationwide air service were created. Road
construction, however, did not keep up with the tremendous increase in
the number of motor vehicles in the country, especially in urban areas.
Road transport now accounts for the bulk of passenger travel and most
movement of freight. The country’s first multilane highway (from Seoul
to Inch’ŏn) was opened in 1968, and the express highway network
subsequently was expanded to link most major cities. The bus
transportation network, including many long-distance express lines, is
well developed.
The South Korean railways are largely government-owned. Until 1960
rail travel was the major means of inland transportation for both
freight and passengers but since has been superseded by road transport
and, more recently, by the rise in air travel. Railways are almost all
of standard gauge, the Seoul-Pusan line through Taejŏn and the
Seoul-Inch’ŏn line are double-tracked, and many lines are electrified.
Seoul and Pusan have heavily used subway systems. Beginning in the
1990s, high-speed railway lines (the latter achieving speeds of about
190 miles [300 km] per hour) were constructed. The Seoul-Pusan
High-Speed Rail line, constructed between 1992 and 2004, has reduced the
travel time between the two cities from more than four hours on the
former express train to just over two and a half hours.
Internal air transportation began in the early 1960s. Most major
cities have scheduled air services. Inch’ŏn International Airport,
opened in 2001, serves as the country’s main port of entry and an
air-travel hub for Northeast Asia. Kimp’o Airport, also near Seoul and
formerly the main international airport, now serves only domestic
destinations; it is connected by shuttle to the Inch’ŏn airport. There
are a number of other international airports, including those at Pusan
and Cheju.
Port facilities have been expanded considerably with the tremendous
growth in trade. Pusan has one of the largest container terminals in the
world. Other major ports are Inch’ŏn, Kwangyang, Ulsan, P’ohang, and
Cheju. Scheduled passenger-ferry service connects the islands of Cheju,
Hong, and Ullŭng with the mainland.
Government and society
Constitutional framework
The government instituted after a constitutional referendum in 1987
is known as the Sixth Republic. The constitutional structure is
patterned mainly on the presidential system of the United States and is
based on separation of powers among the legislature, the executive, and
the judiciary. The government system, highly centralized during most of
South Korea’s existence, is less so under the Sixth Republic. The
president, since 1987 chosen by direct popular election for a single
five-year term, is the chief of state, head of the executive branch, and
commander of the armed forces. The State Council, the highest executive
body, is composed of the president, the prime minister, the heads of
executive ministries, and ministers without portfolio. The prime
minister is appointed by the president and approved by the elected
National Assembly (Kuk Hoe).
Legislative authority rests with the unicameral National Assembly.
The powers of the National Assembly, which was reinstated in 1980 after
a period of curtailment, were strengthened in 1987. Its 299 members are
chosen, as previously, by a combination of direct and indirect election
to four-year terms.
South Korea has a multiparty system in which two parties have tended
to dominate, although their names and composition have often changed. In
the early 21st century the conservative Grand National Party and the
centrist-liberal Democratic Party were dominant.
Local government
South Korea is divided administratively into the nine provinces (do
or to) of Cheju, North Chŏlla, South Chŏlla, North Ch’ungch’ŏng, South
Ch’ungch’ŏng, Kangwŏn, Kyŏnggi, North Kyŏngsang, and South Kyŏngsang;
and the metropolitan cities (kwangyŏksi) of Seoul, Pusan, Taegu,
Inch’ŏn, Kwangju, Taejŏn, and Ulsan. Each has a popularly elected
legislative council. Provinces are further divided into counties (gun)
and cities (si), and the large cities into wards (ku) and precincts
(tong). Provincial governors and the mayors of province-level cities are
popularly elected.
Justice
The judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court, three appellate
courts (High Courts), district courts, a family court, a patent court,
and administrative and local courts. The Supreme Court is empowered to
interpret the constitution and all other state laws and to review the
legality of government regulations and activities. The chief justice is
appointed by the president with the consent of the National Assembly;
the mandatory retirement age for the chief justice is 70. All other
Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president upon the
recommendation of the chief justice; they serve six-year terms, to which
they may be reappointed, and the retirement age is 65.
Armed forces and security
South Korea maintains a large, well-equipped armed-forces
establishment—consisting of army, navy, and air force branches—although
it is still considerably smaller than that of North Korea. The army is
by far the largest component, and there is a sizable reserve force.
Military service is compulsory for all males. South Korea’s main
military objective is to deter an attack by the North. To that end it
has a Mutual Defense Treaty (1953) with the United States, and a large
contingent of U.S. troops is stationed in the country.
Civilian intelligence gathering and other nonmilitary matters of
national security are the responsibility of the National Intelligence
Service, formerly called (1981–99) the Agency for National Security
Planning and (1961–81) the Korean Central Intelligence Agency. Military
intelligence is handled by the Defense Security Command. The Korean
National Police Agency combines standard police duties with
responsibility for counteracting communist infiltration and controlling
civil disorders.
Health and welfare
The availability of medical services increased enormously after the
Korean War, covering the basic needs of the country, including the
remote rural areas, to a satisfactory level. Most people now have some
sort of medical insurance coverage. Public health and sanitation have
greatly improved, thus reducing epidemics. The average life-expectancy
rate rose dramatically from the 1950s, while the death rate more than
halved. The infant mortality rate also declined sharply.
The government provides basic social welfare services: public
pensions, unemployment insurance, workers’ compensation and health
insurance, and public assistance. After the Korean War, United Nations
agencies, civilian and military agencies of the United States, and
private volunteer agencies played a significant role in the steadily
improving living conditions in South Korea. Also significant was the
dramatic increase in household income, especially among industrial
workers. Despite these overall improvements, a disparity still exists
between the quality of life of the rural population and that of urban
dwellers.
Housing
Rapid expansion of urban areas, especially the expansion of Seoul
and Pusan, has resulted in considerable changes in the urban landscape.
Before 1960 there were few multistory buildings; even in Seoul, most
structures were lower than 10 stories. Between 1988 and 1992, in
response to a housing shortage created by rapid urbanization, the
government sponsored the creation of more than 2.5 million housing
units, mostly in the form of apartments. Construction continued at a
similar rate in the years immediately following. High-rise buildings,
especially apartment blocks, are now common in the cities. By the early
21st century more than half the country’s population lived in apartment
buildings. Because of this rapid growth, city services, such as water,
transportation, and sewage systems, generally have lagged behind the
needs.
Education
Six years of primary school education and three years of middle
school are compulsory, and virtually all children of school age are
enrolled. Nearly all middle-school graduates continue to high school or
technical school. About four-fifths of high school graduates go on to
higher educational institutions. Graduation from a college or university
grew considerably in importance in South Korea after World War II, and
the number of college-level institutions increased enormously. Admission
to a college or university requires applicants to pass a fiercely
competitive entrance examination; high school students must endure
grueling preparation work for these examinations, and less than half of
high school graduates get the opportunity to study at universities.
Nearly all of the most-prestigious schools are located in Seoul; these
include the state-run Seoul National University (founded 1946)—one of
more than a dozen national universities located throughout the
country—and the private Korea University (1905), Yonsei University
(1885), Ewha Womans University (1886), and Sookmyung Women’s University
(1906). In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, overseas study,
particularly in the United States, grew in popularity.
Cultural life
Cultural milieu
Shamanism, Buddhism, and Confucianism constitute the background of
modern Korean culture. Since World War II, and especially after the
Korean War, globalization and rapid political and economic development
have had a marked effect on the country’s culture. Traditional thought,
however, still plays an important role under the surface. Korea belongs
historically to the Chinese cultural realm. After the Three Kingdoms
period in particular, Korean culture was strongly influenced by the
Chinese, although this influence was given a distinctive Korean stamp.
A number of Korean cultural sites have been named UNESCO World
Heritage sites. These include the depositories for the Tripitaka Koreana
(one of the most complete editions of Buddhist canonical writings in the
world), located at Haein Temple, west of Taegu (designated 1995);
several dolmen (stone burial monument) sites from the 1st millennium bce
in the southwestern part of the country (2000); and the volcanic island
of Cheju and its lava-tube cave system (2007).
Daily life and social customs
The once-dominant Confucian culture—with its emphasis on respect for
ancestors, age, and seniority—continues to influence Korean family,
work, and social life, albeit to a lesser degree than in the past. In
addition to other factors, such as economic status and position in a
business hierarchy, age and marital status are among the determinants of
relative seniority, and there is some expectation that even between
social acquaintances these factors—especially age—will influence
relations.
Traditional family life is much involved with rituals marking
life-cycle milestones and the observation of holidays and ancestral
rites. The most important passages in a person’s life are the completion
of a baby’s first 100 days, one’s marriage, and one’s 61st birthday.
According to traditional Korean belief, the spirits of the departed do
not leave the Earth for several generations; thus, deceased parents and
grandparents are still considered part of the family. Ancestral rites
(cherye) are performed to honour them on death anniversaries and on
major holidays. Two of the most important holidays are Sŏllal (Lunar New
Year) and Chusŏk (harvest moon festival, often referred to as the Korean
Thanksgiving), both observed according to the lunar calendar. These are
marked by the gathering of families in the ancestral hometown or at the
home of the head of the family. Traditional elements of holiday
celebrations include the formal, respectful greeting of elders, the
preparation and eating of special foods such as specific types of rice
cakes (ddŏk), and the wearing of traditional dress (hanbok).
Hanbok was the everyday dress of Koreans for thousands of years
before the opening of the country to the West. Western dress has
supplanted the hanbok almost everywhere, but even urban dwellers
commonly still wear it on special occasions such as important family
meetings, holidays, weddings, and funerals. Women’s and girls’ formal
hanbok consists of several layers of undergarments under a colourful,
long billowing skirt and short jacket held closed with a long tie. The
men’s and boys’ version consists of full-legged pants and a long,
wide-sleeved jacket. There are different hanbok for special occasions,
such as weddings, babies’ birthdays, and 61st-birthday celebrations.
Food is an important part of Korean cultural identity. In the diets
of even the most Westernized urban dwellers, traditional Korean cuisine,
which emphasizes grains—especially rice—and fresh vegetables, continues
to occupy a dominant role even amid the popularity of pizza, hamburgers,
sushi, Chinese food, and other foreign dishes. A Korean meal generally
consists of rice, soup or stew, and a number of side dishes, almost
invariably among them kimchi, or pickled vegetables. Such is the
importance of kimchi in the national diet that an estimated 160 or more
varieties have been identified, and there is a museum in Seoul dedicated
to the dish. The most common type is the spicy paech’u (Chinese cabbage)
kimchi. Although many families today buy most of their kimchi in
supermarkets, many others still make their own. The traditional practice
of kimjang, in which villages and families devoted several days in the
autumn to preparing the winter supply of kimchi, is celebrated in such
annual kimjang festivals as that held in the southwestern city of
Kwangju. Other popular Korean dishes are bibimbap (rice mixed with
vegetables, egg, a spicy sauce, and sometimes meat), jjajangmyŏn
(noodles in a black-bean sauce), pulgogi (or bulgogi; marinated meat
grilled over charcoal), and samgyet’ang (a soup of stewed whole chicken
stuffed with rice and ginseng), which is eaten as a restorative,
particularly during hot weather.
The arts
Traveling troupes that performed shadow or puppet plays, did
acrobatics and juggling, danced and sang, and performed versions of
court or popular entertainments were long a feature of Korean village
and provincial town life. Among the oldest forms of Korean dance and
theatre performance is the masked dance. In addition to professional
groups, villagers in different areas of the country formed folk groups
to perform their own local versions of the sandae masked play and
dances. Today the sandae is performed by villagers in Kyŏnggi and South
Kyŏngsang provinces as well as in parts of North Korea. Performers are
males. Masks cover either the whole head or the face and are made from
paper or gourds or, occasionally, are carved from wood. They are boldly
painted to represent the stock characters of the play: monks, shaman,
noblemen, young dancing girl, and others.
P’ansori, a sung narrative accompanied by virtuoso drumming, was
created by professional performers during the Chosŏn period. Either a
man or a woman could be the solo singer-dancer, and the performer was
often a shaman. The current repertoire of six long stories was codified
in the 19th century by the performer Shin Jae-hyo.
Traditional folk dances, some of them ancient, survive, and
several—the mask dance (chŏyongmu) of the Silla kingdom, the crane dance
(hakch’um) of the Koryŏ, and the dance of the spring nightingale
(ch’unaengjŏn)—are supported and promoted by the government as
designated “intangible cultural properties.” Folk music, accompanied by
traditional musical instruments such as the kayagŭm (a 12-stringed
zither) and the changgo (an hourglass-shaped drum), has undergone a
revival and is performed at ceremonies and festive occasions.
One of the earliest examples of Korean painting is found in the mural
paintings in the royal tombs of Koguryŏ. The best-known mural paintings
are those in the Ssangyong Tomb at Yonggang, located in North Korea.
Ceramic arts became highly developed, flourishing during the Koryŏ
period—when Korea produced some of its most notable examples of fine
celadon ware—and diffusing to Japan. Every province continues to produce
its distinctive ceramic ware.
Korean architecture shows Chinese influence, but it is adapted to
local conditions, utilizing wood and granite, the most abundant building
materials. Beautiful examples are found in old palaces, Buddhist
temples, dolmens, and Buddhist pagodas. Western-style architecture
became common from the 1970s, fundamentally changing the urban
landscape, but some old-style wooden houses (hanok) still exist even in
Seoul, and the traditional Korean floor-heating system (ondol) continues
to be used in new construction.
Cultural institutions
The National Museum of Korea maintains artifacts of Korean culture,
including many national treasures, chiefly in the central museum in
Seoul; there are branch museums in some one dozen cities across the
country. Archaeological sites include the ancient burial mounds at
Kyŏngju, capital of the Silla kingdom, and Kongju and Puyŏ, two of the
capitals of Paekche. The largest collection of contemporary art is in
the National Museum of Contemporary Art at Kwach’ŏn, near Seoul.
Many museums, performance groups, and institutes have been
established to preserve the traditional arts and crafts and promote
contemporary ones. The National Theatre, in Seoul, is home to four
resident companies: the National Drama Company, National Changgŭk
(traditional Korean musical drama) Company, National Dance Company, and
National Traditional Music Orchestra. The National Classical Music
Institute (formerly the Prince Yi Conservatory) plays an important role
in the preservation of folk music. It has had its own training centre
for national music since 1954. The Korean National Symphony Orchestra
and the Seoul Symphony Orchestra are two of the best-known organizations
performing Western music.
Sports and recreation
South Koreans are avid sports and outdoors enthusiasts. The martial
art tae kwon do and the traditional belt-wrestling style called ssirŭm
(which is similar to Japanese sumo and Mongolian wrestling) are widely
practiced national sports. There are well-supported professional
baseball and football (soccer) leagues, and the “Red Devils,” as fans of
the South Korean World Cup football team are called, are especially well
known for their enthusiastic demonstrations of support. The country’s
system of national parks attracts large numbers of hikers, campers, and
skiers.
Two events have been of great importance to South Korea in terms of
developing the country’s international sports reputation. The 1988
Summer Olympic Games at Seoul not only boosted national pride but also
were the catalyst for the construction of many new sports and cultural
facilities and for the enhancement of Korean cultural identity. Perhaps
even more significant was South Korea’s cohosting, with Japan, the 2002
World Cup finals. Ten cities in South Korea, including Seoul, Pusan,
Taegu, and Taejŏn, provided venues for about half the games, and the
Korean national team advanced to the semifinal, the first time an Asian
country had achieved that level.
Media and publishing
Constitutionally guaranteed press freedoms, often violated before
1987, are now generally observed. There are a number of nationally
distributed daily newspapers (including economic, sports, and
English-language papers) and many regional and local dailies. The daily
Chosun Ilbo and Dong-A Ilbo are the country’s two oldest newspapers,
both established in 1920. The Yŏnhap News Agency is the largest news
organization. In addition to the publicly owned Korean Broadcasting
System (KBS), a growing number of private and local radio and television
stations have been established. The privately owned Munhwa Broadcasting
Company (MBC) and Seoul Broadcasting System (SBS) are the biggest
television broadcasting networks after KBS, and the publicly owned
Educational Broadcasting System, like KBS, MBC, and SBS, reaches a
nationwide television audience. Cable and satellite television were also
growing in popularity in the early 21st century.
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries South Korean films and
television dramas experienced a surge in popularity across Asia that
also caught on, to a somewhat lesser extent, in the United States and
other countries. This hallyu (“Korean wave”) brought many South Korean
actors and popular music figures to international attention. The hallyu
was seen as an economic and cultural asset, as it brought revenue and
tourists to the South Korean economy as well as increasing the country’s
profile abroad. In the film industry, Im Kwon-taek (Im Kwŏn-t’aek), Park
Chan-wook (Pak Ch’an-uk), and Kim Ki-duk (Kim Ki-dŏk), among others,
established reputations as directors of international stature.
Chan Lee
Woo-ik Yu
History
The following is a treatment of South Korea since the Korean War.
For a discussion of the earlier history of the peninsula, see Korea.
South Korea to 1961
The First Republic
The First Republic, established in August 1948, adopted a
presidential system, and Syngman Rhee was subsequently elected its first
president. South Korea also adopted a National Security Law, which
effectively prohibited groups that opposed the state or expressions of
support for North Korea. Rhee was reelected in August 1952 while the
country was at war. Even before the outbreak of the Korean War
(1950–53), there had been a serious conflict between Rhee and the
opposition-dominated National Assembly that had elected him in 1948. The
dispute involved a constitutional amendment bill that the opposition
introduced in an attempt to oust Rhee by replacing the presidential
system with a parliamentary cabinet system. The bill was defeated, but
the dispute continued at Pusan, the wartime provisional capital, where
the National Assembly was reconvened.
When the opposition introduced another amendment bill in favour of a
parliamentary cabinet system, Rhee in 1952 countered by pushing through
a bill that provided for the popular election of the president. Later,
in 1954, Rhee succeeded in forcing the National Assembly, then dominated
by the ruling party, to pass an amendment that exempted him from what
was then a two-term limit on the presidency. Under the revised
constitution, Rhee ran successfully for his third term of office in May
1956. His election for the fourth time, in March 1960, was preceded by a
period of tension and violence and was followed by accusations that the
election had been fraudulent. Massive student demonstrations took place
that culminated in a major event on April 19 in which many demonstrators
died. Rhee resigned under pressure six days later and fled to exile in
Hawaii, where he died in 1965 at age 90.
The Second Republic
The Second Republic, which adopted a parliamentary cabinet
system, lasted only nine months. A figurehead president was elected by
both houses of the legislature, and power was shifted to the office of
Prime Minister Chang Myŏn, who was elected by the lower house by a
narrow margin of 10 votes.
The Chang government made some strenuous efforts to initiate reforms.
In a society laden with social and economic ills accumulated over a long
period of time, however, it failed to cope with the unstable situation
created by a violent political change. Rampant political factionalism
only made the situation worse. With the ultimate source of authority now
vested in the office of the prime minister, all factions, conservative
and moderate, engaged in constant maneuvering to win over a group of
independents in order to form a majority in the legislature. Before
Chang had time to launch a full program of economic reform, the
leadership of the ruling Democratic Party was crippled by factional
strife within its ranks.
Military rule
The 1961 coup
On May 16, 1961, the military seized power through a carefully
engineered coup d’état, ushering in a new phase of postliberation Korean
politics. The military junta, led by General Park Chung Hee, took over
the government machinery, dissolved the National Assembly, and imposed a
strict ban on political activity. The country was placed under martial
law, and the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction (SCNR), headed
by Park, took the reins of government and began instituting a series of
reforms.
In November 1962 the SCNR made public a constitutional amendment bill
that provided for a strong president and a weak, single-chamber National
Assembly. The bill was approved by a national referendum one month
later. A series of events unfolded in the first half of 1963. In
February Park announced that he would not take part in the civilian
government to be formed later in the year if civilian political leaders
chose to uphold a nine-point “political stabilization proposal.”
However, as a result of bitter turbulence within the ruling junta and a
chaotic situation created by the proliferation of minor political
parties, Park soon changed his mind and proposed that military rule be
extended for four years. The proposal met vigorous opposition from
civilian political leaders, but some 160 military commanders, most of
them generals, supported the extension. In April, Park, under
considerable domestic and international pressure (particularly from the
United States), announced a plan for holding elections toward the end of
the year. Park was named presidential candidate of the newly formed
Democratic Republican Party (DRP) in late May.
The Third Republic
The election for president of the Third Republic took place on
October 15, 1963. Park narrowly defeated the opposition candidate, Yun
Po Sŏn, former president (1960–62) of the Second Republic, who had
remained in office as a figurehead at the request of the junta to
provide constitutional continuity for the military government. When
political activity was permitted to resume, Yun led the mustering
opposition groups and became the presidential candidate of the Civil
Rule Party. In May 1967 Park was elected to his second term of office,
and the DRP won a large majority in the National Assembly. Members of
the opposition New Democratic Party (NDP), whose head was the
twice-defeated Yun, claimed fraud and refused for some time to take
their seats in the National Assembly.
During his second term, President Park faced the constitutional
provision that limited the president to two consecutive four-year terms.
Amid extensive political turmoil created by the demonstrations of
opposition politicians and students, the DRP members of the legislature
passed a constitutional amendment that would make a president eligible
for three consecutive four-year terms. The amendment was approved by a
national referendum in October 1969. In the presidential elections held
in April 1971, Park defeated Kim Dae Jung of the NDP; however, the NDP
made substantial gains, especially in major urban areas, securing 89
seats in the National Assembly election as against 113 seats won by the
ruling DRP.
The Yushin order (Fourth Republic)
In December 1971, shortly after his inauguration to a third
presidential term, Park declared a state of national emergency, and 10
months later (October 1972) he suspended the constitution and dissolved
the legislature. A new constitution, which would permit the reelection
of the president for an unlimited number of six-year terms, was
promulgated in December, launching the Fourth Republic.
The institutional framework of the Yushin (“Revitalization Reform”)
order departed radically from the Third Republic. The National
Conference for Unification (NCU) was created “to pursue peaceful
unification of the fatherland.” The conference was to be a body of
between 2,000 and 5,000 members who were directly elected by the voters
for a six-year term. The president was the chairman of the conference.
Until 1987 the NCU was charged with the power to elect the president,
and under this arrangement, Park was elected without opposition in 1972
and was reelected in 1978.
Political unrest increased following the August 1973 kidnapping from
Tokyo to Seoul of Kim Dae Jung—who had been conducting an antigovernment
campaign in the United States and Japan—by agents of the Korean Central
Intelligence Agency (KCIA; now the National Intelligence Service). From
August 1978 the opposition movement became stronger. The expulsion from
the National Assembly of the new NDP leader Kim Young Sam in early
October 1979 escalated what had already been growing political tensions
between the government and opposition leaders during the year into a
major national crisis. Antigovernment riots broke out in Pusan and Masan
and were suppressed by government troops. The crisis culminated on
October 26, when President Park was assassinated by Kim Jae Kyu, his
longtime friend and director of the KCIA. Prime Minister Choi Kyu Hah
became acting president under the Yushin constitution and was formally
elected president in December by the NCU.
In the meantime, the country was placed under strict military rule by
Gen. Chun Doo Hwan. An armed uprising of students and other citizens in
Kwangju in May 1980, calling for the full restoration of democracy, was
ruthlessly suppressed by the military junta, with hundreds of civilian
deaths. That month the military did away with all trappings of civilian
government, extended martial law, again banned all political activity,
and closed universities and colleges.
Restoration of civilian government
The Fifth Republic
In August 1980 Chun Doo Hwan was elected president by the NCU. A new
constitution, under which the president was limited to one seven-year
term, was approved in October, ushering in the Fifth Republic. Martial
law was lifted in January 1981, and in February Chun was elected
president under the new constitution. As parties were again allowed to
operate, a new ruling party, the Democratic Justice Party (DJP), was
formed by former members of the DRP and NDP. Chun’s administration,
however, had to endure a series of scandals and incidents—most notably
the bombing by North Koreans in Rangoon, Burma (now Yangon, Myanmar), in
October 1983 that killed several members of the South Korean government.
Meanwhile, in 1980 the strongly anticommunist Ronald Reagan was elected
president in the United States, ushering in closer U.S.–South Korean
ties and cooler U.S.–North Korean relations.
By 1987 popular dissatisfaction with the government had become
widespread. To address this crisis, Roh Tae Woo (from 1985 the chairman
of the DJP) announced a program of constitutional reforms that would
restore the democratic institutions and basic civil rights that had been
usurped under military rule. Chun, compelled to accept this program,
oversaw the drafting of a revised constitution, which was approved by a
national referendum in October. Among its principal provisions were a
reduction in the presidential term from seven to five years and the
direct popular election of the president. Roh, a former army general,
was elected president in December and took office in February 1988. With
his inauguration, a peaceful transfer of power was effected for the
first time in South Korean history, and the tortuous history of the
Fifth Republic came to an end.
Bae-ho Hahn
Young Ick Lew
The Sixth Republic
In the much-improved political climate of the Sixth Republic,
South Korea hosted the highly successful Summer Olympic Games in Seoul
later that year. Roh proceeded to bring about a merger (1990) of the DJP
with the Reunification Democratic Party of Kim Young Sam and the New
Democratic Republican Party of Kim Jong P’il, who for a time had been
prime minister during the Fourth Republic. The resultant Democratic
Liberal Party (DLP) commanded an overwhelming majority in the National
Assembly.
While it was reestablishing democracy in the domestic political
arena, the Roh government initiated the so-called “northern diplomacy”
policy toward the Soviet Union and its allies. These efforts brought
about the establishment of diplomatic ties with Hungary, Poland, and
Yugoslavia in 1989 and with the Soviet Union in 1990. Relations between
South Korea and China improved as well, and in 1992 the two countries
established full diplomatic ties. That December Kim Young Sam was
elected president on the DLP ticket, and he succeeded Roh in February
1993.
Kim, the first civilian president in more than 30 years, sought to
extricate the military from power and to reassert civilian supremacy
over the military. Shortly after taking office, he purged thousands of
bureaucrats, military leaders, and businessmen, released thousands of
political prisoners, and launched a major anticorruption initiative
(notably banning bank accounts under false names). Kim’s popularity
surged, but a severe economic downturn and the continued entrenchment of
corruption (Kim’s own son was arrested on charges of bribery and tax
evasion) diminished his standing by the end of his term. He also oversaw
a historic reform of local government. Local elections, which had been
suspended indefinitely in 1961, were reinstated in limited fashion in
1991 and fully restored in 1995, allowing voters to choose governors and
mayors of major cities.
During Kim’s term his two predecessors, Chun Doo Hwan and Roh Tae
Woo, were arrested. Roh had shocked the country by admitting that he had
amassed a political slush fund of some $650 million, and both men were
convicted of corruption for having plotted the 1979 coup that had
brought Chun to power and for treason in the massacre of protestors at
Kwangju in 1980; Chun was sentenced to death and Roh to 221/2 years’
imprisonment (commuted to life imprisonment and 17 years, respectively).
In addition, nine executives of South Korea’s chaebŏl (business
conglomerates) were convicted of bribing Chun and Roh in return for
government favours.
In December 1997 perennial opposition candidate Kim Dae Jung was
elected president of South Korea, narrowly defeating the New Korea Party
(NKP; the renamed DLP) nominee. Shortly after the election, Chun and Roh
were pardoned in a gesture of goodwill, and on Feb. 25, 1998, Kim was
sworn in as president. Kim implemented a so-called “sunshine” policy
toward the North, which led in 2000 to a historic summit between Kim and
North Korean leader Kim Jong Il and to Kim Dae Jung’s selection as the
recipient of that year’s Nobel Prize for Peace. Nevertheless, his
administration was also plagued by corruption scandals, and his
international policies met resistance from the United States. Still, in
2002 South Korea basked in the success of the World Cup association
football (soccer) finals, which it cohosted with Japan and at which its
national team reached the semifinals, the first time an Asian team had
advanced so far. That same year, the country also hosted the Asian Games
in Pusan.
In 2003 Kim was succeeded as president by Roh Moo Hyun of Kim’s
Millennium Democratic Party. A lawyer, Roh was a strong supporter of
democratic reforms and had established himself as a defender of leftist
demonstrators. Roh faced intense opposition from the more conservative
Grand National Party (the former NKP), and in 2004 he was impeached by
the National Assembly. Roh temporarily withdrew from office while the
Constitutional Court considered the charges. In parliamentary elections
that year, his party captured a majority in the National Assembly; Roh
was subsequently acquitted, and he resumed office. In the 2007
presidential election, the Grand National candidate, former Seoul mayor
Lee Myung-bak, won in a landslide. Legislative elections the following
year gave the Grand National Party a slim majority in the National
Assembly.
Relations with the North
Tensions between South Korea and the North remained high after
the Korean War, exacerbated by such incidents as the assassination
attempt on Park Chung Hee by North Korean commandos in 1968, the bombing
in Rangoon in 1983, and the North’s destruction by time bomb of a South
Korean airliner over the Thai-Burmese border in 1987. The first
significant contact between the two states occurred in early 1972, when
the Park government carried out secret negotiations with North Korea. A
joint statement was issued in July that announced agreement on a formula
for national reunification. The ensuing dialogue between North and
South, however, was short-lived.
In the early 1990s there were again signs of rapprochement between
the two Koreas. North-South relations appeared to reach a milestone when
a pact of reconciliation and nonaggression was signed in December 1991.
Earlier that year, North Korea had retreated from its insistence on a
single Korean membership in the United Nations, and the two states were
separately admitted to the UN on September 17. North Korea’s potential
nuclear weapons capabilities emerged as a source of anxiety for the
South shortly thereafter. With the death of the North Korean leader Kim
Il-sung in July 1994, hope was rekindled for further reconciliation and
for a peaceful reunification of the peninsula, and in October the
nuclear issue appeared settled when the North agreed to close an
experimental nuclear reactor in exchange for the United States arranging
for the financing and construction of two reactors capable of producing
electrical power.
At the turn of the 21st century, many Koreans believed that the time
might be near when the peninsula would be reunified. Kim Dae Jung’s
sunshine policy led to a summit with the North Korean leader, and some
families were permitted to travel across the border for reunions. In
2003 construction began on a joint North-South industrial complex and
duty-free trade facility at Kaesŏng, N.Kor., that was planned during a
period of warming relations in the late 1990s. Within a few years,
several dozen South Korean companies had facilities there, among them
textile, chemical, machinery, and electronics factories. The businesses
employed both North and South Koreans, and tourist groups were permitted
to visit the complex from South Korea. In addition, at the 2000 Summer
Olympic Games in Sydney and at several Olympics and Asian Games
thereafter, North and South Korean athletes marched under a single flag
(one showing a silhouette of the peninsula) during the opening and
closing ceremonies, though they competed as separate teams.
Nevertheless, relations subsequently soured as North Korea admitted
it had continued developing nuclear weapons; in 2005 the North revealed
that it possessed such weapons, and in October 2006 it tested its first
nuclear device. Dialogue between the two sides continued, however,
resulting in two significant events in 2007: in May trains from both the
North and the South crossed the demilitarized zone to the other side,
the first such travel since the Korean War; and in October Roh Moo Hyun
met Kim Jong Il in P’yŏngyang for a second summit. The December 2007
election of Lee Myung-bak as South Korean president began another period
of deterioration in inter-Korean relations as Lee took a harder line
with P’yŏngyang. In 2008 North Korea announced that it planned to close
the land border and all nonmilitary telephone links with South Korea.
North Korean officials followed up on those pronouncements in January
2009 when they stated that all military and political agreements with
South Korea would be nullified; in May of that year, the North further
announced that all business contracts pertaining to the joint
North-South Kaesŏng Industrial Complex would be canceled.
Economic and social developments
In the 1950s South Korea had an underdeveloped, agrarian economy
that depended heavily on foreign aid. The military leadership that
emerged in the early 1960s and led the country for a quarter century may
have been autocratic and, at times, repressive, but its pragmatic and
flexible commitment to economic development resulted in what became
known as the “miracle on the Han River.” During the next three decades,
the South Korean economy grew at an average annual rate of nearly 9
percent, and per capita income increased more than a hundredfold. South
Korea was transformed into an industrial powerhouse with a highly
skilled labour force. In the late 20th century, however, economic growth
slowed, and in 1997 South Korea was forced to accept a $57 billion
bailout from the International Monetary Fund (IMF)—then the largest such
rescue in IMF history. The country also wrestled with reforming the
chaebŏl and liberalizing its economy. Nevertheless, its economy enjoyed
a recovery in subsequent years, and the country entered the 21st century
on a relatively firm economic footing.
South Korean society underwent an equally rapid transformation after
the Korean War. The population more than doubled between the end of the
war and the turn of the 21st century. Simultaneously, modern education
developed rapidly, again with considerable government involvement but
also because of the resurgence of the Korean people’s traditional zeal
for education after decades of repression during the Japanese occupation
period (1910–45). The growth of educational institutions and of
commercial and industrial enterprises in and around South Korea’s major
cities attracted an increasing number of rural people to urban areas.
Seoul, in particular, grew some 10-fold to about 10 million people
between the end of World War II and the early 21st century. There was a
corresponding growth in communications media, especially newspaper and
magazine publishing. An ambitious program was also undertaken to expand
and modernize the country’s transportation infrastructure.
The most conspicuous social change in South Korea, however, was the
emergence of a middle class. Land reform carried out in the early 1950s,
together with the spread of modern education and the expansion of the
economy, caused the disappearance of the once-privileged yangban
(landholding) class, and a new elite emerged from the ranks of the
former commoners. Another significant social change was the decline of
the extended-family system: rural-to-urban migration broke traditional
family living arrangements, as urban dwellers tended to live in
apartments as nuclear families and, through family planning, to have
fewer children. In addition, women strenuously campaigned for complete
legal equality and won enhanced property ownership rights. Women also
won the right to register as a head of family in a new family register
system (hojŏk) that took effect in 2008. Under the old system only men
could register as family heads; thus, children were legally part of the
father’s family register, not the mother’s. The new system increased
women’s legal standing in, among other things, divorce and child-custody
cases. This system also granted adopted and stepchildren rights that
were equal to those of biological children—for example, in matters of
inheritance.
Rapid urbanization, the nuclear family system, the increase in
women’s active participation in the economy, and lengthening life
expectancies meant that by the early 21st century South Korea had
decreasing birth rates and an aging population. The overall population
was expected to decrease over the next decades as well. The government
was concerned that fewer children and an aging society would slow
economic growth and destabilize the social security system in the
future.
Young Ick Lew
Hyug-Baeg Im
