Overview
Country, southern Africa, an enclave lying within the Republic of
South Africa.
Area: 11,720 sq mi (30,355 sq km). Population (2007 est.): 2,008,000.
Capital: Maseru. Almost all of the population are Sotho, a
Bantu-speaking people. Languages: Sotho, English (both official), Zulu.
Religions: Christianity (official; Roman Catholic, other Christians,
Protestant); also traditional beliefs. Currency: loti. About two-thirds
of the total area is mountainous; the highest point is Mount Ntlenyana
(11,424 ft [3,482 m]). The Maloti Mountains in the central northwest are
the source of two of South Africa’s largest rivers, the Tugela and the
Orange, and home to the Lesotho Highlands Water Project, a large-scale
development that diverts water and generates power. Mineral resources
are scant. Agriculture employs nearly two-fifths of the workforce; the
chief farm products are corn, sorghum, and wheat. Livestock provides
exports (cattle, wool, mohair). Industries focus mainly on light
manufacturing (textiles and apparel, furniture, jewelry). Lesotho is a
constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; its chief of state
is the king, and the head of government is the prime minister.
Bantu-speaking farmers began to settle the area in the 16th century, and
a number of chiefdoms arose. The most powerful of them organized the
Basotho in 1824 and obtained British protection in 1843 as tension
between the Basotho and the South African Boers increased. It became a
British territory in 1868 and was annexed to the Cape Colony in 1871.
The colony’s effort to disarm the Basotho resulted in revolt in 1880,
and four years later it separated from the colony and became a British
High Commission Territory. It became independent in 1966. A new
constitution, effective in 1993, ended seven years of military rule. At
the beginning of the 21st century, Lesotho suffered from a deteriorating
economy and one of the world’s highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection.
Profile
Official name Lesotho (Sotho); Kingdom of Lesotho (English)
Form of government constitutional monarchy with 2 legislative houses
(Senate [33 nonelected seats]; National Assembly [120])
Chief of state King
Head of government Prime Minister
Capital Maseru
Official languages Sotho; English
Official religion Christianity
Monetary unit loti (plural maloti [M])
Population estimate (2008) 2,020,000
Total area (sq mi) 11,720
Total area (sq km) 30,355
Main
country in Southern Africa. A scenic land of tall mountains and
narrow valleys, Lesotho owes a long history of political autonomy to the
mountains that surround it and protect it from encroachment. Since the
Neolithic Period, the mountain kingdom was the domain of
Khoisan-speaking hunter-gatherers. In the 19th century the Sotho, led by
Moshoeshoe I, took control of the region. It remained independent until
it became a British protectorate, one of three British High Commission
Territories (the others being Bechuanaland [now Botswana] and
Swaziland).
Completely encircled by the Republic of South Africa but separated
from it by forbidding mountain ranges, Lesotho has endured decades of
turbulent politics, periodic economic crises, and grinding poverty since
gaining its independence from Great Britain in 1966. Though culturally
conservative in the main, the people of the country welcomed the
modernization programs begun in the 1990s, which have brought new wealth
to the country but at the cost of much environmental damage. Tourism and
revenues from the country’s diamond industry have also helped to improve
material conditions, and the capital, Maseru, has grown to become one of
Southern Africa’s most attractive cities. Of these changes, Sotho writer
Mpho ’M’Atsepo Nthunya remarks,
Maybe if there is one day enough for the hunger to stop, we can stop
being so jealous of one another. If the jealousy is no more, we can
begin to have dreams for each other.
Land
The country forms an enclave within South Africa, bordering on
three of the latter’s provinces—KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, and Eastern
Cape. Like only two other independent states in the world (Vatican City
and the Republic of San Marino), Lesotho is completely encircled by
another country, on which it must depend for access to the outside
world.
Relief, drainage, and soils
Two-thirds of Lesotho consists of mountains. The highest peak, Mount
Ntlenyana, is 11,424 feet (3,482 metres) above sea level. The
Drakensberg range forms the eastern boundary with KwaZulu-Natal. The
Maloti spurs of the Drakensberg, running north and south, join the main
range in the north, forming a plateau from 9,000 to 10,500 feet (2,700
to 3,200 metres) in elevation. This plateau, the centre of the
cattle-raising and agricultural industries, is the source of South
Africa’s two largest rivers—the eastward-flowing Tugela and the
westward-flowing Orange—as well as tributaries of the Caledon
(Mohokare). Three other important rivers in Lesotho are the Senqunyane
in the centre of the country, the Kometspruit in the southwest, and the
Matsoku in the northeast. The foothills, with elevations averaging
between 6,000 and 7,000 feet (1,800 and 2,100 metres), descend in
undulating slopes to the west, where the lowlands bordering Free State
rise to elevations of 5,000 to 6,000 feet (1,500 to 1,800 metres). The
mountain soils are of basaltic origin and are shallow but rich. The
soils of the lowlands derive mainly from the underlying sandstone.
Extensive erosion has severely damaged soils throughout the country.
Climate
Precipitation, brought by the prevailing winds, occurs mostly
between October and April and is variable; the annual average is about
28 inches (710 mm), with amounts decreasing from east to west. Hail is a
frequent summer hazard. Temperatures in the lowlands reach as high as 90
°F (32 °C) in the summer and plunge to 20 °F (−7 °C) in the winter. In
the highlands the temperature range is much wider, and readings below 0
°F (−18 °C) are not unusual. Frost occurs widely in the winter, when the
Maloti Mountains are usually snowcapped.
Plant and animal life
Lesotho is largely covered in grasses, although trees also appear on
the landscape. Indigenous trees include Cape willows, cheche bush (used
for fuel), and wild olives. Other willows and white poplars have been
introduced into the country. There are numerous indigenous species of
aloes, which are commonly found in the cooler, wet areas. Overgrazing,
overutilization, and soil erosion have drastically depleted and altered
the grasslands, reedbeds, and woody bush on the slopes. Reforestation
schemes have been attempted but have met with limited success.
In the mid-19th century, zebras, wildebeests, ostriches, and lions
could be found in the country. However, hunting and deforestation have
mostly eliminated the populations of large mammals; the last lion was
killed in the 1870s. Smaller antelope and hares can still be found, and
the hyrax, or dassie, is common. Sehlabathebe National Park in the
southeastern highlands near Qacha’s Nek protects such birds as raptors
and such mammals as mountain reedbuck and leopards. Lesotho is the last
stronghold in Southern Africa of the magnificent bearded vulture, or
lammergeier. Some rivers contain yellowfish and the rare Maloti minnow;
trout and the North African catfish have also been introduced.
People
Ethnic groups
The Sotho (also known as Basotho) form the overwhelming majority of
the country’s population. They were originally united by a common
loyalty to the royal house of Moshoeshoe I, who founded the Sotho nation
in the 19th century. Internally, divisions between different
chiefdoms—and within the royal lineage itself—have had political
significance, but externally a sense of Sotho nationhood and cultural
unity remains strong. Lesotho is also home to a Zulu minority, a small
population of Asian or mixed ancestry, and a European community that is
dominated by expatriate teachers, missionaries, aid workers,
technicians, and development advisers.
Languages
Except for English, all the main languages spoken in Lesotho are
members of the Niger-Congo language family. Sotho (Sesotho), a Bantu
language, is spoken by the majority of the population, though both Sotho
and English are official languages in the country. Zulu is spoken by a
small but significant minority. Phuthi, a dialect of Swati, and Xhosa
are also spoken in parts of Lesotho.
Religion
Some four-fifths of the population profess Christianity, of which
the largest denomination is Roman Catholic; other denominations include
Lesotho Evangelical, Presbyterian, and Anglican. Independent churches
are also present, together with Zionist sects (small African sects that
blend Pentecostal Christianity and indigenous ritual belief). Other
religions—including Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism—are practiced by small
percentages of the population, as are traditional religions. Some
adherents of Christianity also embrace traditional religious beliefs.
Settlement patterns
The population density of Lesotho is high for an African state,
despite the thinly settled areas of mountainous terrain. A large
proportion of the population lives in the western lowlands, which have a
much higher population density than the rest of the country as a whole:
almost three-fourths of the population lives in the narrow corridor,
only 25 miles (40 km) in width, that stretches along the Caledon River.
Although not permanently inhabited, the mountain grasslands on the
slopes of the high plateau and in the valleys provide summer grazing for
sheep and cattle, tended by herders in isolated cattle posts. Some of
the deep valleys, such as the Senqunyane, produce crops of wheat, peas,
and beans.
Since independence in 1966, there has been considerable population
movement toward the capital city, Maseru. While Maseru is the largest
city by far, smaller urban populations inhabit Maputsoe, Teyateyaneng,
Mafeteng, and Hlotse. However, about three-fourths of the population is
rural.
Families and clans still cluster together as units in the numerous
small rural villages, where social cohesion is strengthened by the
persistence of clan and family loyalties. The villages range in size
from one large family to four or five extended families, with an average
of 30 to 50 nuclear families. The villages, situated on the plains and
surrounded by aloes and trees, offer fine views of the rocky highlands.
Demographic trends
Lesotho’s population is growing at a slower rate than that of most
other African countries as well as the world. Although the country’s
birth rate is slightly above the world average, the population growth is
limited by infant mortality and death rates that are well above the
world average and largely due to the prevalence of AIDS. Lesotho’s
population is relatively young, with more than three-fifths of the
population below age 29. Life expectancy in Lesotho is below the average
for Africa and ranks among the lowest in the world but is similar to
that of other countries in Southern Africa.
Lesotho is affected by both temporary and permanent emigration, often
in conjunction with employment opportunities. In the mid-1990s, for
example, about one-fourth of all working males were employed in South
Africa; by the early 2000s, though, the number had declined to about
one-fifth. A small number of these migrant workers, who were resident in
South Africa before 1996 and who voted in the 1994 South African
elections, became eligible for permanent residency status in South
Africa.
Economy
Lesotho is a poor country; other than water, its few natural
resources are insufficient even for the present population. Lesotho’s
economy could not be sustained without the benefits it derives from
South Africa, with which it forms part of a customs union and shares an
integrated communications system and with which it shares the Lesotho
Highlands Water Project, a large-scale water transfer scheme that
exports water to South Africa and produces hydroelectric power for
Lesotho. It has also depended heavily on South Africa for employment for
much of the working population. Remittances from this population
contributed some two-thirds of the gross national product in 1990, but
the proportion had declined to one-third by the mid-1990s as employment
opportunities became far more restrictive. In the early 21st century the
rate hovered around one-fourth. Official estimates of unemployment among
the labour force in Lesotho vary, ranging from about one-third to
one-half, with some observers estimating the rate is actually closer to
three-fourths.
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
Although only one-tenth of the country is arable, the majority of
the rural population is involved with subsistence agriculture.
Agriculture was frequently a major contributor to the gross domestic
product (GDP), but drought, especially in the 1990s and in the early
21st century, has drastically reduced its contribution to the GDP. The
most important crops are corn (maize), sorghum, wheat, beans, and peas.
Cattle products have been exported, and wool and mohair are produced and
exported. Foodstuffs must be imported, as droughts have largely
destroyed summer harvests and livestock. Agricultural development
projects are funded by a wide range of agencies, including the World
Bank. None, however, have been able to reverse the steady decline in
agricultural production since the mid-1960s. Timber cutting is largely
for fuel. Fishing (from inland waters) of the common carp, rainbow
trout, and catfish also is practiced on a small scale.
Resources and power
Minerals
Geologic surveys have revealed little promise of mineral wealth,
although kimberlite pipes in the highlands do produce diamonds. A mine
at Letseng-la-Terae in Mokhotlong operated briefly, in 1977–82, and in
June 1999 an agreement was signed between private interests and the
Lesotho government to reopen it; production resumed in 2003. There are
known uranium deposits near Teyateyaneng, about 30 miles (50 km)
northeast of Maseru, but the deposits have not yet been commercially
exploited.
The Lesotho Highlands Water Project
Of primary importance to the country is the Lesotho Highlands Water
Project (LHWP), a large-scale water-transfer plan involving Lesotho and
South Africa. Although similar plans had been discussed since the 1930s,
the LHWP first took shape in the late 1980s and grew in scope in the
mid-1990s. The LHWP augments the transfer of the headwaters of the
Orange River deep in the valleys of the Lesotho highlands to the river’s
principal tributary, the Vaal River in South Africa, thus supplying that
country with much-needed water while generating hydroelectric power for
use in Lesotho.
The LHWP consists of dams, reservoirs, transfer tunnels, and a
hydroelectric power station. The first phase of the project included the
construction of the Katse Dam, completed in 1997, and the Muela
Hydroelectric Power Station, inaugurated in 1999. The Mohale Dam was
completed in 2003, also as part of the first phase, which was celebrated
with an official inauguration ceremony in March 2004. The LHWP has
already generated income for Lesotho from the water exported to South
Africa, and Lesotho has been able to meet almost all of its electricity
needs with hydroelectric power produced by the project.
The LHWP is managed by the Lesotho Highlands Water Commission
(initially named the Joint Permanent Technical Commission), an
organization comprising representatives from Lesotho and South Africa,
and has attracted financing from the World Bank, the European Union, and
a number of other development agencies. Within Lesotho, the intricacies
of the project are overseen by the Lesotho Highlands Development
Authority.
The project is championed as being of great significance for the
future of the region as a whole and Lesotho in particular, although it
has not been without controversy and opposition. The first phase of the
LHWP was beleaguered by labour strikes and mired in accusations of
corruption and inept management. The project has also been opposed by
international environmental organizations, and project officials have
been criticized for their treatment of displaced populations throughout
the construction process.
Manufacturing
Manufacturing is a relatively new sector of Lesotho’s economy,
largely because South Africa strongly discouraged competing industries
until after the end of apartheid in 1994. The emphasis has been on
small-scale enterprises; several industrial estates operate small
projects, producing candles, ceramics, furniture, and jewelry. Other
activities include weaving, canning, and diamond cutting and polishing.
Clothing from wool and mohair, food products, fertilizers, and
television sets are also produced. Urban development has stimulated
construction and catering and other service industries.
In the early 21st century the textile industry grew, aided by
favourable trade agreements such as the U.S.-led African Growth and
Opportunity Act and the World Trade Organization’s Agreement on Textiles
and Clothing; the sector diminished, however, when certain trade
protections expired in 2005, and competition from countries such as
China rendered the Lesotho textile sector largely uncompetitive.
Finance and trade
Lesotho’s currency, the loti (plural: maloti), is issued by the
Central Bank of Lesotho. The currency was introduced in 1980 as a way to
establish monetary independence from South Africa. Lesotho is a member
of the Common Monetary Area, comprising Lesotho, Swaziland, South
Africa, and (since 1990) Namibia. This organization allows Lesotho the
freedom to set the exchange rate of its own currency, although at the
beginning of the 21st century the loti was fixed to the South African
rand. Lesotho has a few commercial and development banks.
Lesotho, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, and Swaziland are members
of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), which allows for the free
exchange of goods between member countries. Payments were made to the
member countries by South Africa beginning in 1969 as compensation for
those countries’ lack of freedom to conduct economic policies that were
completely independent of South Africa. Lesotho is also a member of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC), a regional organization
focused on economic cooperation and integration.
Lesotho’s principal exports are clothing, furniture, and footwear,
while its main imports are manufactured goods, foodstuffs, machinery,
and transport equipment. The country maintained a trade deficit into the
21st century. Most trade is with countries in Africa, North America, and
Asia. The large deficit is offset somewhat by the remittances of
Lesotho’s migrant workers, external aid, and receipts from SACU.
Labour, taxation, and services
Many Sotho seek employment in South Africa. In the mid-1990s about
one-fourth of all Sotho working males were employed in South Africa; by
the early 2000s, though, the number had declined to about one-fifth. The
great majority of the temporary migrant workers are men under age 40,
but increasing numbers of young women are now seeking employment—legally
and illegally—in South Africa.
The government is the country’s largest employer outside of
agriculture, with a large share of the government’s annual budget
consisting of payments to its public employees. In the 1990s more than
half of government revenue was derived from the SACU; in the early 21st
century this figure fluctuated between two-fifths and one-half. The
government has sought to reduce the dependency on SACU revenues by
improving its collection of income and sales taxes. Lesotho has several
trade unions and associations.
A growing number of visitors have been attracted to Lesotho’s
mountain scenery, and the country has done much to develop a tourism
base. Roads and pony trails have been developed, trout streams stocked,
and hotels and a ski resort built.
Transportation and telecommunications
Since independence, access to the more remote villages has been made
easier by construction of hard-top roads in the lowlands, by the opening
of good-quality gravel roads to the highlands, and by the availability
of four-wheel-drive vehicles and aircraft that provide domestic flights.
However, the small, sturdy Basotho pony is still widely used in the
rural areas, along with donkeys and oxen. A main road runs along the
western and southern boundary, and a mountain road from Maseru reaches
into the interior. These two main arteries are served by short-distance
feeder roads, while villages in the mountains are served by bridle
paths. Railways are nonexistent, except for a short line that links the
capital to the South African rail network. Light aircraft are used
extensively for passengers and for transporting mail and freight to the
interior. There is an international airport south of Maseru, and several
smaller airports are located throughout the country.
In the early 21st century the number of telephone landlines in the
country had more than doubled since the 1990s, but mobile phone usage
had grown far more rapidly and surpassed the use of landlines. Internet
access has been available since 1998 and is growing in popularity.
Government and society
Constitutional framework
A constitution was written when Lesotho became independent in 1966,
but it was suspended in 1970 by Chief Leabua Jonathan, then prime
minister, when it appeared that the opposition party would prevail in
the country’s first postindependence elections. A new constitution,
approved by a constituent assembly in July 1991, was not promulgated
until the March 1993 general elections. It made Lesotho a hereditary
monarchy, with the king as the head of state. The king no longer held
any executive authority but was instead a national symbol. The bicameral
parliament consists of an elected National Assembly and an appointed
Senate. The 120 members of the National Assembly are elected to
five-year terms—80 directly, 40 proportionally—while the Senate consists
of 22 traditional chiefs and 11 members chosen by the king. Executive
power rests with the cabinet, of which the prime minister is the head.
The prime minister is also head of the armed forces. Political parties
were dissolved in 1986 but reauthorized in 1991.
Local government
Lesotho is divided into 10 administrative districts, each of which
is under the direction of a district council, headed by an
administrator. The subdistrict tier of local government is administered
through community and municipal councils. District council members are
indirectly elected by the community and municipal councils within the
district, while community and municipal council members are directly
elected by their constituents. Traditional chiefs are also included in
district, community, and municipal councils.
Justice, security, and political process
The legal system is based on Roman-Dutch law, with elements of
British and customary law also playing a role. There are local and
central courts, judicial commissioners’ courts, subordinate courts, and
a court of appeal, with the High Court as the superior court of record.
Magistrates’ courts exist in the districts. Lesotho maintains only a
small defense force and relies on South Africa for its external
security.
Under customary law, women cannot inherit land. When a family does
not have a son to inherit the land, it reverts back to the chief. This
practice was amended by the 1979 Land Act to allow women the right to
remain on the property should their husbands die before them. Because of
the nature of the migratory work patterns of men, women are increasingly
becoming the heads of households, but the law has been slow to
acknowledge this fact. Women have been elected to the National Assembly,
but they constitute only a small minority of the membership, despite
effort to increase the participation of women in politics. However, in
the country’s first local government elections, held in 2005, slightly
more than half of the councillors elected were women.
Health and welfare
Lesotho has one of the highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection in the
world. Although HIV/AIDS was first detected in Lesotho in the mid-1980s,
the government was slow to address it, and the disease quickly spread:
in 2001 almost one-third of the population was infected with HIV; within
the next few years the rate had decreased slightly, hovering around
one-fourth. Women—particularly younger women—account for more than half
of all reported cases of HIV infection. Lesotho also has a high number
of children orphaned by AIDS, and the number of children living with
HIV/AIDS has risen, mainly the result of mother-to-child transmission.
Through various national organizations—such as the Lesotho AIDS
Programme Coordinating Authority and its successor, the National AIDS
Commission—the government has made efforts to combat the AIDS pandemic
by making treatment options more widely available, as well as promoting
awareness of AIDS-prevention methods and the importance of knowing one’s
HIV status.
Apart from AIDS, the main incidences of illness are
nutrient-deficiency diseases, venereal diseases, chronic rheumatism, and
infections of the respiratory tract, especially tuberculosis. In
addition to these common maladies, by the early 21st century Lesotho had
experienced an increase in the incidence of psychiatric illness and
noncommunicable diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and hypertension,
generally attributed to lifestyle changes in the general population.
There are several hospitals, about half of which are operated by the
government, and a number of clinics, health centres, and dispensaries.
However, health care delivery is uneven throughout the country, because
of geographical obstacles presented by mountainous terrain, as well as
some socioeconomic inequalities. The health care system in general is
overwhelmed by the number of people infected with HIV/AIDS, and there is
a lack of medical supplies and properly trained personnel.
Housing
The capital, Maseru, consists of a modern city centre surrounded by
suburbs for the large bureaucracy and for foreign aid and development
personnel; shacks and informal settlements dot the perimeter. In the
rural villages the walls and doors of many houses are covered with
colourful painted designs. The villages themselves consist of clusters
of circular or rectangular one-room houses solidly built of turf,
Kimberley brick (unburned clay), or dressed stone. Traditionally, the
roofs were thatched, but more-modern roofs are made of corrugated iron,
as they are in many other parts of sub-Saharan Africa.
The average household usually has two or three one-room houses, the
largest one serving as a living and dining area and as the parents’
bedroom; the smaller ones are used for kitchen and storage purposes and
as sleeping quarters for the children. The house of the chief, or
headman, is usually in the centre of the village, protected by that of
his principal wife and surrounded by those of his other wives. The
lekhotla (open court) is in front of the chief’s house; beside it are
the kraals (enclosures) for the cattle and stables for horses.
Education
Primary education is free and compulsory for seven years for all
children between ages 6 and 13. Secondary education is provided in two
cycles of three years and two years, respectively. Primary and secondary
schools remain largely administered by Christian churches, under the
supervision of the Ministry of Education and Training. Postsecondary
education is provided by the National University of Lesotho (1945) and
Lesotho Agricultural College (1955), and there are also vocational and
educational training centres in the country. Lesotho has one of the
highest literacy rates in Africa (about four-fifths of the population).
Cultural life
The Sotho combine modern and traditional ways, providing continuity
in a society that is disrupted by a system of migratory labour. Although
undermined by political developments since independence in 1966,
traditional authority is still exercised through a system of
chieftaincy, extending from the king through the chiefs to the village
level. The chiefs are largely responsible for the working and
distribution of land, although in certain areas this authority has been
curtailed by the Land Act of 1979.
The contradictions created by Lesotho’s lack of economic independence
in the face of political independence are reflected in the cultural life
of the country. Despite increasing urbanization and the growth of modern
institutions and bureaucracy, many Sotho are still interested in
building a rural homestead and perpetuating traditional institutions.
They also remain loyal to the chieftaincy system. Institutions such as
the initiation schools, which perpetuate traditional values, are still
significant but are changing in structure.
Daily life and social customs
Urban life is a blend of traditional and Western culture. In Maseru
there are shops and markets that offer regional crafts and goods, as
well as modern and Western hotels, restaurants, and nightclubs. Many
buildings, however, were burned or damaged by looting following the
general election of 1998. The city also contains urban villages where
tourists can experience traditional life in Lesotho.
Village life centres largely on the fields, the chief’s court, the
kraals, the school, the church, and the initiation lodge. Circumcision
forms an integral part of the ritualized initiation ceremonies that
train boys to take their place as full members of the family, clan, and
nation—the three centres of social cohesion. Many young boys spend a
large part of their lives as herdsmen, while women and young girls do
much of the hard work in the fields. Because of the sharp variations in
climate, both men and women wear blankets, often multicoloured, which
they use as cloaks. Men and women also wear the typical Sotho hat, which
is woven from reeds into conical shapes and has a decorative topknot.
Village life is dominated by basic agricultural tasks, with heavy
responsibilities falling on women. Craftwork is still practiced in the
villages and includes pottery, grass weaving (notably of traditional
Sotho hats), and the painting of elaborate decorations on the walls of
houses. Herders play a traditional musical instrument called the lesiba,
a stringed and wind instrument consisting of a string and feather on
which the musician blows. Dances such as the “gum boot dance”
demonstrate the influence of migrant labour on traditional forms of
cultural expression. The more traditional mohobelo is a men’s stomping
dance that consists of synchronized movements and high kicks. Women
perform their own dance by kneeling in a line and beating the ground
with their knees.
Lesotho observes most Christian holidays, including Christmas and
Easter. The country also celebrates such secular holidays as
Moshoeshoe’s Day on March 11 (in honour of Moshoeshoe I, the founder of
the Sotho nation), Worker’s Day on May 1 (see May Day), Heroes’ Day and
Africa Day on May 25, Independence Day on October 4 (commemorating the
day on which the country received its independence from Britain), Boxing
Day on December 26, and King’s Birthday, which is celebrated annually on
whichever day the reigning king’s birthday falls. The Morija Arts and
Cultural Festival is held annually at Morija, south of Maseru, and
provides a showcase for Lesotho’s various artists, performers, and
cultural groups.
The arts
The work of Lesotho’s artists is prized by collectors. Many artists
are active in the country, and the sale of their work is an important
part of Lesotho’s economy. Many use motifs borrowed from the ancient
petroglyphs left by the San people at Ha Baroana, a rock shelter east of
Maseru. Contemporary artists include ‘Mathabo Nthako, a female potter
who uses traditional African firing techniques to create objects with
themes that are religious and filled with subtle humour. Tsepiso
Lesenyeho, a painter whose work often depicts village scenes, has earned
a following among the Sotho as well as among visitors to the country.
The Sotho culture enjoys a rich tradition of oral literature that is
given expression in folk songs, proverbs, jokes, myths, and legends. The
historical traditions and legacy of Moshoeshoe I remain strong, and
there is national pride in Lesotho’s history of resistance, in the role
of the Sotho in building modern Southern Africa, and in the achievements
of such writers as Thomas Mokopu Mofolo, who wrote Western-style novels
in Sotho, and such composers as Joshua Polumo Mohapeloa (1908–82).
Cultural institutions
The government archives and the national library are located in
Maseru. Outside the city is the country’s most important historic site,
Thaba Bosiu, which was the centre of Moshoeshoe I’s kingdom.
Teyateyaneng, the centre of the arts and crafts industries, is also
located outside Maseru.
Sports and recreation
Sporting activities are extremely popular. Football (soccer) is the
most widely played sport in Lesotho, and many of the country’s best
players play professionally in South Africa. Judo, boxing, and
long-distance running are also popular, the first two benefiting from
training facilities provided by the police force. Horse racing is
important to rural social life.
Media and publishing
Television and radio have done much to improve communication in
Lesotho. The state operates both a television and a radio station and
provides programming in Sotho and English. There are also several
independent radio stations, and radio and television broadcasts from
South African stations and global satellite networks can be received in
the country. Lesotho has several weekly newspapers published in Sotho
and English. Printing presses at mission stations have made a
substantial contribution to the religious and educational literature of
Southern Africa and have produced such publications as the newspaper
Leselinyana la Lesotho (“The Little Light of Lesotho”), which has been
published for more than a century. The country’s first daily paper, The
Nation, began publication in 1985.
Colin Legum
J.J. Guy
James Hamilton Cobbe
Ed.
History
This discussion focuses on Lesotho since the mid-19th century.
For a more detailed treatment of earlier periods and of the country in
its regional context, see Southern Africa.
The territory now known as Lesotho was occupied as early as the
Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) by Khoisan-speaking hunter-gatherers.
From about the 16th century, African farmers—the ancestors of the
present population—moved across the grasslands of Southern Africa and
settled in the fertile valleys of the Caledon River, where they came to
dominate the hunters of the region. These stock-keeping agriculturalists
belonged to the large Sotho group and were divided into numerous clans
that formed the nucleus of chiefdoms, whose members occupied villages.
The Sotho kingdom (1824–69)
The violent upheavals of the early 19th century among the
chiefdoms of Southern Africa intensified in Lesotho in the 1820s. During
this turbulent period, known as the Difaqane (also spelled Lifaqane;
Sotho: “crushing”), the members of many chiefdoms were annihilated,
dispersed, or incorporated into stronger, reorganized, and larger
chiefdoms positioned in strategically advantageous areas. (See Mfecane.)
The leaders who headed the new chiefdoms had the ability to offer
greater protection; one of these was Moshoeshoe I of the Moketeli, a
minor lineage of the Kwena (Bakwena). In 1824 he occupied Thaba Bosiu
(“Mountain at Night”), the defensive centre from which he incorporated
many other individuals, lineages, and chiefdoms into what became the
kingdom of the Sotho (subsequently also called Basutoland). Moshoeshoe
was a man of remarkable political and diplomatic skill. By cooperating
with other chiefdoms and extending the influence of his own lineage, he
was able to create a Sotho identity and unity, both of which were used
to repel the external forces that threatened their autonomy and
independence. Moshoeshoe also acknowledged the importance of acquiring
the skills of farmers, settlers, hunters, and adventurers, who
increasingly moved across his borders from the south. He therefore
welcomed the missionaries from the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society
as a source of information about the rest of the world when they arrived
at Thaba Bosiu in 1833. He placed them in strategically important parts
of the kingdom, where they gave the Sotho their first experience with
Christianity, literacy, and commodity production for long-distance
trading.
Large numbers of Boer trekkers from the Cape Colony began to settle
on the western margins of the kingdom in 1834 and to challenge the right
of the Sotho to their land. The next 30 years were characterized by
conflict and outbursts of warfare between the Sotho and the Boers.
Ultimately, the Sotho lost most of their territory west of the Caledon
River, from which the Boers formed the Orange Free State. The British,
to whom Moshoeshoe appealed for intervention, were unable to resolve the
dispute over where the boundary should be drawn.
Devastating wars in the late 1860s prompted Moshoeshoe to again
appeal to the British for assistance, as he feared the dispersal and
possible extinction of his people. Sir Philip Wodehouse, governor and
high commissioner of the Cape Colony, concerned with the region’s
stability and British interests in Southern Africa, annexed the kingdom
to the British crown in 1868.
Basutoland remained a British protectorate until Moshoeshoe’s death
in 1870 (he was buried on Thaba Bosiu). The next year the colony was
annexed to the Cape Colony without the consent of Basutoland. The former
independent African mountain kingdom lost much of its most productive
land to the Boers and its political autonomy to the British.
Nonetheless, the Sotho still retained some of their land and their
social and cultural independence.
Basutoland (1871–1966)
Attempts by the Cape Colony administration to disarm the Sotho
led to the Gun War (1880–81). The Cape Colony relinquished Basutoland to
British rule in 1884, when it became one of three British High
Commission Territories in Southern Africa; Swaziland and Bechuanaland
(now Botswana) were the other two.
At the end of the 19th century, mineral discoveries were made; their
enormous potential laid the foundation for the creation of the Union of
South Africa (1910). In order to acquire cheap labour and to end
competition from independent African agricultural producers, landowners
and miners encouraged the adoption of policies that deprived the
indigenous population of its social and political rights and most of its
land. Sotho farmers took advantage of the markets for foodstuffs in the
growing South African mining centres, however. They utilized new farming
techniques to produce substantial surpluses of grain, which they sold on
the South African markets. Sotho workers also traveled to the mines to
sell their labour for cash and firearms.
Lesotho’s history in the 20th century was dominated by an increasing
dependence on labour migration to South Africa, which was made necessary
by taxation, population growth behind a closed border, the depletion of
the soil, and the need for resources to supplement agricultural
production. Sotho workers became an important element of the South
African mining industry, and Basutoland became the classic example of
the Southern African labour reserve, its people dependent on work in
South Africa for their survival.
The British set up a system of dual rule and left considerable power
in the hands of the paramount chiefs—Letsie (1870–91), Lerotholi
(1891–1905), Letsie II (1905–13), Griffith (1913–39), Seeiso (1939–40),
and the regent ’Mantsebo (1940–60)—all of whom were descendants of
Moshoeshoe I. Under these leaders, authority was delegated through
ranked regional chiefs drawn from the royal lineage and the most
important chiefdoms. A system of customary law was adopted, with the
land held in trust by the paramount chief for the people, while crucial
aspects of local government were also left to the chiefs. The colonial
government was headed by a resident commissioner and advised by the
Basutoland National Council, which was led by the paramount chief and
dominated by his nominated members.
The British administration was concerned primarily with balancing
Basutoland’s budget, which it facilitated by ensuring that a substantial
proportion of the population worked for wages in South Africa. The local
chiefs could do little to halt the increasing social and economic
deprivation within Basutoland. Education was left to the missionary
societies, and there was little development of economic infrastructure
or social services. Between 1929 and 1933 the Great Depression coincided
with a massive drought, driving so many people into South Africa that
the population in Basutoland hardly increased for a decade.
Opposition to the colonial system grew, but no organizations were
able to topple the colonial administration and its traditionalist
allies. The Sotho were unified, however, in their opposition to
Basutoland’s incorporation into South Africa and their fear that the
British might cede the territory to South Africa without consulting
them.
In the early 1930s the British attempted to reduce the number of
chiefs, but after World War II (during which more than 20,000 Sotho
served for the British in North Africa, Europe, and the Middle East) the
development of nationalist parties pressing for independence outweighed
the need for reform. Three major political parties emerged at this time:
the Basutoland Congress Party (BCP; at independence the Basotho Congress
Party) in 1952, under Ntsu Mokhehle; the more conservative Basutoland
National Party (BNP; at independence the Basotho National Party) in
1958, under Chief Leabua Jonathan, which was supported by the South
African government and was associated with chiefly power and the Roman
Catholic Church; and the Marema-Tlou Freedom Party (1963), which was
identified with the defense of the powers of the country’s principal
chiefs.
The Basutoland Council, in existence since 1903, obtained the right
to control the internal affairs of the territory in 1955. The region
became self-governing in 1965, and general elections held in that year
for a new legislative assembly were dominated by the BNP. On Oct. 4,
1966, when Basutoland received its independence from Britain, it was
renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho and headed by paramount chief Moshoeshoe
II (named for the nation’s founder) as king and Chief Jonathan as prime
minister. Executive power was given to the prime minister in 1967.
The Kingdom of Lesotho
The first two decades
In the first postindependence general elections (January 1970), the
opposition BCP gained a majority of seats. The results were never
released, however, and Chief Jonathan suspended the constitution,
arrested leading members of the opposition, and temporarily exiled the
king. Resistance to these moves was met with considerable violence, but,
after a short delay, Britain accepted the actions of Chief Jonathan.
The BNP used legislation and violence—and the distribution of state
patronage—to silence and control its opponents. In 1974 the BCP
attempted to overthrow the regime, but this coup was put down, and
Mokhehle, the BCP’s leader, went into exile.
During the 1970s Lesotho received an increasing amount of foreign aid
in support of its struggle against apartheid South Africa. The funding
helped to increase the pace of modernization and urban development, spur
economic improvements in infrastructure, education, and communications,
and create a privileged bureaucracy; it failed, however, to alleviate
the long-standing problems of poverty and dependence. Thus, although
mine wages and payments from the Southern African Customs Union
increased in the 1970s, Lesotho was unable to use these revenues
productively and remained dependent on South Africa.
Chief Jonathan criticized South Africa’s apartheid policy on numerous
occasions through the late 1970s. The government’s hostility toward the
South African regime became more serious when the country began
accepting refugees from South Africa. As part of its strategy to
destabilize its African neighbours, South Africa gave support to the
armed wing of the BCP, the Lesotho Liberation Army. In December 1982 the
South African Defence Force attacked houses in Maseru that it alleged
were guerilla bases for the African National Congress. More than 40
people were killed, many of whom were Lesotho citizens. Relations
between the governments deteriorated as South Africa demanded the
expulsion of South African refugees in Lesotho.
Differences also began to appear among leading figures within the
Lesotho government; one faction advocated a policy more amenable to
South African demands. In January 1986 the South African authorities
placed severe restrictions on the movement of goods and people across
the border, effectively closing it. In response, the pro-South African
faction in Lesotho, led by Maj. Gen. Justin Lekhanya, deposed Chief
Jonathan and established military rule, making the king head of state.
When the Military Council banned open political activity and deported
a number of South African refugees, South Africa responded by lifting
the blockade. In October 1986 Lesotho and South Africa signed the
Lesotho Highlands Water Treaty (see above The Lesotho Highlands Water
Project), and the following year a South African trade mission was
established in Lesotho. However, Lesotho’s economic impasse continued as
a recession in South Africa deepened and the South African gold mining
industry reduced its production.
Political crisis
Conflict arose in February 1990 within the Military Council, headed
by Maj. Gen. Lekhanya, but King Moshoeshoe II refused to approve several
dismissals from the council. He was dethroned and went into exile, and
his eldest son, Mohato, was sworn in as King Letsie III. Maj. Gen.
Lekhanya was forced to resign in April 1991 after a successful coup led
by Col. Elias Tutsoane Ramaema, who lifted the ban on political activity
and promised a new constitution. The political and economic crises
continued, however, and demonstrations broke out in Maseru in May.
General elections first promised in 1992 were finally held in March
1993. The BCP returned to power under the leadership of Ntsu Mokhehle as
prime minister. He appointed a commission in July 1994 to examine the
circumstances surrounding the dethronement of King Moshoeshoe II in
1990. King Letsie’s attempt to dismiss the BCP government in August 1994
proved unsuccessful, and Moshoeshoe was reinstated as king in January
1995. Less than a year later, Moshoeshoe died, and Letsie reassumed the
throne.
Lesotho was heavily affected by developments in South Africa during
the mid-1990s and by its own internal political instability. When the
international community removed its economic sanctions against South
Africa, Lesotho lost its advantage of being within South Africa but not
part of it. This, together with the reduced South African demand for
Sotho labourers, produced more unemployed and underemployed in Lesotho
and increased political volatility and lawlessness there. Severe riots
aimed mostly at Asian-owned businesses caused serious setbacks for
foreign investment.
In 1997 the BCP dismissed Mokhehle as leader, and he eventually
formed his own party, the Lesotho Congress of Democrats (LCD). The LCD
overwhelmingly won the general elections of May 1998, and, upon
Mokhehle’s resignation, Pakalitha Mosisili became prime minister.
Although claims of voting fraud were raised, the election was declared
free and fair by many international observers. Opposition parties
protesting in Maseru were joined in August by large numbers of jobless
youths. The protesters obtained arms, and looting and arson broke out in
Maseru and the surrounding towns; much of the capital was left in ruins.
Faced with an insurrection, the government asked the Southern African
Development Community (SADC) to send troops to Lesotho from South Africa
and Botswana to quell the disturbances. Eventually, SADC forces restored
order, but not before the majority of businesses and government offices
had been sacked or destroyed. In response, South Africa imposed an
agreement that called for new elections. Stability was restored, and
SADC forces withdrew from the country in May 1999. Although the
government that took power in May 1998 was headed by Mosisili and the
LCD, representatives from the SADC forced Lesotho to create an Interim
Political Authority (IPA), which contained representatives from the
country’s major political parties and was charged with preparing for the
2000 elections.
Challenges in the 21st century
The IPA was inaugurated in late 1998 and immediately became
embroiled in contentious debate regarding the type of electoral system
to embrace. Because of the dissent, the IPA was not able to establish an
electoral schedule in time for elections to be held in 2000, and they
were postponed. In 2002, when the elections were finally held, the LCD
again won the majority of parliamentary seats, and Mosisili was named to
a second term as prime minister. In 2006, dissension within the LCD
resulted in one of the party’s prominent ministers, Thomas Thabane,
leaving to form the All Basotho Convention (ABC); many other LCD
ministers followed Thabane to the ABC. Nevertheless, the LCD managed to
maintain control of the parliament after early elections were called in
February 2007. Although the elections were generally viewed as free and
fair by international observers, the ABC contested the results but to no
avail.
Meanwhile, local government elections were held in 2005—the first
such elections since independence—but were clouded by low voter turnout
(less than one-third of eligible voters participated). Later that year
the government made an ambitious effort to address the country’s growing
HIV/AIDS pandemic by offering free HIV testing to the entire population.
Although the objective was to reach every household by the end of 2007,
the program fell short of its goal, stymied by such factors as a lack of
necessary medical staff and the logistics of reaching the many rural and
mountainous locations in the country.
Lesotho also faced other problems in the early 21st century. The
continued decline in agricultural production—caused in part by endemic
soil erosion in the already limited arable land, as well as by repeated
droughts and the impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic on the
workforce—resulted in chronic food shortages, and widespread poverty and
unemployment plagued the country.
J.J. Guy
James Hamilton Cobbe
Ed.
