Albania
 

Overview
Country, Balkan Peninsula, southeastern Europe.

Area: 11,082 sq mi (28,703 sq km). Population (2007 est.): 3,176,000. Capital: Tirana. Language: Albanian (official). Albanians comprise two major subgroups: Gegs (Ghegs) and Tosks. Religions: Islam, Christianity. Currency: lek. Albania may be divided into two major regions: a mountainous highland and, to the west, an Adriatic coastal lowland that contains the country’s agricultural lands and most of its population. Albania has a developing free-market economy that until 1991 was shaped by a socialist system of state ownership. The Albanians are descended from the Illyrians, an ancient Indo-European people who lived in central Europe and migrated south by the beginning of the Iron Age (see Illyria). The Gegs settled in the north and the Tosks in the south, along with Greek colonizers. The area was under Roman rule by the 1st century bce; after 395 ce it became part of the Byzantine Empire. Turkish invasion began in the 14th century and continued into the 15th; though the national hero, Skanderbeg, was able to resist them for a time. After his death (1468) the Turks consolidated their rule. The country achieved independence in 1912 and was admitted into the League of Nations in 1920. It was briefly a republic (1925–28), then became a monarchy under Zog I, whose initial alliance with Italy deteriorated into that country’s invasion of Albania in 1939. After the war a socialist government under Enver Hoxha was installed, and gradually Albania cut itself off from the nonsocialist international community and eventually from all other countries, including China, its last political ally. By 1990 economic hardship had fomented antigovernment demonstrations that led to the election of a noncommunist government in 1992 and the end of Albania’s international isolation. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, Albania continued to experience economic uncertainty and ethnic turmoil, the latter involving Albanian minorities in Serbia and Macedonia.

Profile
Official name Republika e Shqipërisë (Republic of Albania)
Form of government unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Assembly [140])
Chief of state President
Head of government Prime Minister
Capital Tirana (Tiranë)
Official language Albanian
Official religion none
Monetary unit lek (L)
Population estimate (2008) 3,194,000
Total area (sq mi) 11,082
Total area (sq km) 28,703

Main

country in southern Europe, located in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula on the Strait of Otranto, the southern entrance to the Adriatic Sea. The capital city is Tirana (Tiranë).

Albanians refer to themselves as shqiptarë, meaning “sons of eagles,” and to their country as Shqipëria. They are descendants of the ancient Illyrians, who lived in central Europe and migrated southward to the territory of Albania at the beginning of the Bronze Age, about 2000 bce. They have lived in relative isolation and obscurity through most of their difficult history, in part because of the rugged terrain of their mountainous land but also because of a complex of historical, cultural, and social factors.

Because of its location on the Adriatic Sea, Albania has long served as a bridgehead for various nations and empires seeking conquest abroad. In the 2nd century bce the Illyrians were conquered by the Romans, and from the end of the 4th century ce they were ruled by the Byzantine Empire. After suffering centuries of invasion by Visigoths, Huns, Bulgars, and Slavs, the Albanians were finally conquered by the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century. Ottoman rule cut off Albania from Western civilization for more than four centuries, but in the late 19th century the country began to remove itself from Ottoman influence and to rediscover old affinities and common interests with the West.

Albania was declared independent in 1912, but the following year the demarcation of its boundaries by the great powers of Europe (Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Russia) assigned about half its territory and people to neighbouring states. Ruled as a monarchy between the World Wars, Albania emerged from the violence of World War II as a communist state that fiercely protected its sovereignty and in which almost all aspects of life were controlled by the ruling party. But with the collapse of other communist regimes beginning in 1989, new social forces and democratic political parties emerged in Albania. This shift reflected the country’s continuing orientation toward the West, and it accorded with the Albanian people’s long-standing appreciation of Western technology and cultural achievements—even while retaining their own ethnic identity, cultural heritage, and individuality.

Land
Albania is bounded by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, Macedonia to the east, Greece to the southeast and south, and the Adriatic and Ionian seas to the west and southwest, respectively. Albania’s immediate western neighbour, Italy, lies some 50 miles (80 km) across the Adriatic Sea. Albania has a length of about 210 miles (340 km) and a width of about 95 miles (150 km).

Relief
Albania has a mountainous geography. About three-fourths of its territory consists of mountains and hills with elevations of more than 650 feet (200 metres) above sea level; the remainder consists of coastal and alluvial lowlands. The North Albanian Alps, an extension of the Dinaric Alps, cover the northern part of the country. With elevations approaching 8,900 feet (2,700 metres), this is the most rugged part of the country. It is heavily forested and sparsely populated.

In contrast to the Alps, the central mountain region, which extends north-south from the Drin River to the central Devoll and lower Osum rivers, is more densely populated and has a generally less rugged terrain. In the region’s easternmost portion, the imposing gypsum block of Albania’s highest peak, Mount Korab, rises to 9,030 feet (2,752 metres).

South of the central mountain region is a series of northwest-southeast-trending mountain ranges with elevations up to 8,200 feet (2,500 metres). Composed of limestone rock, the ranges are separated by wide valleys. Unlike the Alps and the central region, which are covered with dense forests, the mountains of the southern region are either bare or have a thin covering of Mediterranean shrubs, oaks, and pines. They serve essentially as pasture for livestock.

Stretching along the Adriatic coast over a distance of nearly 125 miles (200 km) and penetrating some 30 miles (50 km) into the interior are the low, fertile plains of western Albania. This is the most important agricultural and industrial region of the country—and the most densely populated.

Drainage
The longest river in Albania is the Drin (about 175 miles [280 km]), which originates in Kosovo. Other main rivers are the Seman, Shkumbin, and Vjosë, all of which drain the central part of the western plains. Albania also has many lakes, the most important of which are Lake Scutari (known in Albania as Lake Shkodër) in the northwest and Lakes Ohrid and Prespa along the eastern border.

Climate
Like other Mediterranean countries, Albania has characteristically warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Local climatic variation can occur, however, from one region to another. The western part of the country, which is under the influence of warm maritime air from the Adriatic and Ionian seas, has more-moderate temperatures than the rest of Albania. For example, Sarandë, on the southern coast, has average daily temperatures in the mid-70s F (about 24 °C) in July and in the upper 40s F (about 9 °C) in January. The eastern part of the country, on the other hand, is mainly under the influence of continental air and is characterized by mild summers (owing to the high elevations) and cold winters. Peshkopi, in the eastern mountains, has temperatures that average in the mid-70s F in July and in the lower 30s F (about −1 °C) in January.

Rainfall in Albania is abundant, but it occurs unevenly across the country and throughout the year. Average annual precipitation varies from more than 100 inches (2,500 mm) in the North Albanian Alps to less than 30 inches (760 mm) along much of the eastern border. Some 40 percent of the annual precipitation falls in the winter. The southwestern part of the country suffers from summer droughts.

Plant and animal life
Only a small part of Albania is completely without vegetation. Forests cover about one-third of the total area. The coastal lowlands are characterized by Mediterranean shrubs such as laurel and myrtle. Above the lowlands, oak forests predominate. Above the oak belt, beginning at about 3,000 feet (900 metres), is a stretch of beeches and pines, and Alpine pastures lie above the timberline.

Unrestricted hunting has taken a heavy toll of Albanian wildlife, but hunting laws were introduced and nature preserves were established in the 1990s to protect the remaining jackals, wolves, and foxes and the even rarer wild boars, bears, and chamois. The mild coastal climate attracts great numbers of migratory birds, such as swallows, storks, ducks, geese, and pelicans. Sardines and mullet are among the fishes found in Albanian coastal waters, and trout are found in the streams and lakes of the mountains.

People
Ethnic groups
Albania has one of the most homogeneous populations in Europe, with non-Albanians accounting for less than one-tenth of the total population. The largest minorities are Vlachs; Greeks, concentrated mainly in the southeast; and Macedonians, living along the eastern border.

The two main subgroups of Albanians are the Gegs (Ghegs) in the north and the Tosks in the south. Differences between the two groups were quite pronounced before World War II. Until the communist takeover in 1944, Albanian politics were dominated by the more numerous Gegs. Renowned for their independent spirit and fighting abilities, they traditionally opposed outside authority, whether that of foreign invaders or that of the Albanian central government. Traditional Geg society was based on tribal groups, each one led by a clan chieftain, or bajraktar. Under the communist regime, this clan system largely disappeared from Albania, but the patriarchal families characteristic of the Gegs are still evident among ethnic Albanians in Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and Macedonia.

Because their southern territories were easily accessible to the outside world, the Tosks were more subject to foreign influence than the Gegs. Before World War II, theirs was a mostly semifeudal society. The peasantry, which made up most of the population, lived at the subsistence level, while a small group of large landowners controlled about two-thirds of the land. The communist movement drew most of its initial support from Tosks in the south.

Languages
The Albanian language, called shqip or shqipe by Albanians, is of interest to linguists because, as a descendant of the extinct Illyrian tongue, it is the only surviving member of its branch of the Indo-European language family. Influenced by centuries of rule by foreigners, the Albanian vocabulary has adopted many words from the Latin, Greek, Turkish, Italian, and Slavic tongues. There are two principal dialects: Geg, spoken north of the Shkumbin River, and Tosk, spoken in the south. Geg dialects are also spoken in Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and Macedonia, and Tosk dialects, though somewhat archaic as a result of centuries of separation from their place of origin in Albania, are prominent in the Albanian communities of Greece and Italy. Although there are variations even within these two dialects, Albanians can understand one another with no difficulty.

Because official business and ecclesiastical functions had long been conducted in Latin or Greek, Albanian did not acquire a definitive orthography until 1908, when a writing system was adopted based on the Roman alphabet. Before this time, publications written in Albania used a mix of different alphabets—namely, Latin, Greek, Turko-Arabic, and Cyrillic. Attempts were then made in following decades to create a unified language based on the Geg dialect of the central Elbasan region; however, all printed materials were published in Tosk until 1972, when a Congress of Orthography was convened in Tirana, and a unified Albanian language based on Tosk was established.

Religion
As a legacy of nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule, Albania is a predominantly Muslim country. However, as a result of the rigid enforcement of atheism during the communist regime, today most Albanians are adherents of religious groups in name only and practice largely secular lifestyles. In 1967 the communist party officially proclaimed Albania an atheistic country and commenced to close all places of worship (churches, mosques, and zāwiyahs), confiscate their property, and ban religious observances. For the whole of its 45 years of absolute rule, the party engaged in large-scale persecution of believers. Only in 1990, when freedom of worship was restored, did churches and mosques begin reopening.

In the early 21st century about seven-tenths of the Albanian population was nominally Muslim, more than half of them Sunni Muslims and the next largest group being the Bektashi sect. Those who identified with Eastern Orthodoxy constituted about one-fifth of the population, and those associated with Roman Catholicism constituted about one-tenth. Muslims are spread throughout the country, although they particularly dominate the centre. Roman Catholics have settled primarily in the northern part of the country, mainly in the city of Shkodër, while Orthodox Christians are prominent in the southern districts of Gjirokastër, Korçë, Berat, and Vlorë. Mother Teresa, a Macedonian-born ethnic Albanian who served as a Roman Catholic missionary to India in the 20th century, is a folk hero in Albania.

Settlement patterns
Albania’s mountain regions, being suitable mainly for pasture, traditionally saw sparse settlement, with small, often almost inaccessible villages of only a few dozen families each. Houses were built of stone and consisted of one or two rooms around a hearth. In the mountain valleys or basins, towns such as Elbasan, Korçë, and Berat developed as centres of local farming and trading.

Western Albania is much more densely populated, but, as a legacy of Ottoman rule, even such centres of the coastal plain as Tirana, Durrës, and Vlorë long remained small towns with virtually no industry. Following World War II, however, mass migration from the countryside doubled Albania’s urban population. During the communist period, planned communities were built in some parts of the countryside to house the workers of huge collective farms, many of which were built around formerly private estates. Following the collapse of communism, these farmers became independent smallholders. Even though rural-to-urban migration accelerated in the 1990s, the country’s population is still more than half rural. The urban population is generally evenly distributed among the country’s major cities, the largest of which is Tirana. Large apartment blocks, often with several units sharing kitchens and toilets, were built under communist rule, but, because the construction of new residences has been unable to keep pace with the movement from the countryside and with Albania’s high birth rate, cities are overcrowded, and there has been a proliferation of shanty dwellings.

Demographic trends
In the decades following World War II, the birth rate in Albania was consistently the highest in Europe and the death rate one of the continent’s lowest. Until the 1990s the Albanian population was increasing four to five times faster than the average annual rate in other European countries. Nearly all of the growth was due to natural increase rather than migration. Even though this explosive growth had slowed by the turn of the 21st century, Albania’s population remains one of the youngest in Europe, with about one-fourth of the total under age 15. The country’s natural increase rate, though slightly high compared with other European countries, dropped below the world average in the early 21st century.

At the beginning of the 21st century there were an estimated seven million ethnic Albanians in the world, but fewer than half of them lived within the boundaries of the Albanian state. The largest concentrations of Albanians outside Albania are in the bordering countries of Kosovo (where ethnic Albanians constitute a majority population), Macedonia, and Montenegro. There are also Albanian communities in Greece, Italy, Turkey, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Romania. Moreover, since the 1970s many Albanians have emigrated to western Europe and the United States.

During the Kosovo conflict of the late 1990s, the Serbian government responded to rising Kosovar Albanian nationalism with a reprisal decried as ethnic cleansing, which forced hundreds of thousands of ethnic Albanians to flee to Albania. By late 1999, however, following the mediation of the conflict, many of them had returned to Kosovo.

Economy
Before 1991 the ruling communist party directed the country’s entire economy through a series of five-year plans. All means of production were under state control, agriculture was fully collectivized, industry was nationalized, and private enterprise was strictly forbidden. In addition, a provision of the constitution prohibited the government from seeking foreign aid, accepting loans, or allowing foreign investment, which contributed to Albania’s reputation as isolationist. In the postcommunist period, economic decision making was decentralized, and restrictions on private trade were lifted. Foreign investment was pronounced by the mid-1990s, with assistance coming from the United States, the European Union, and the International Monetary Fund. By the middle of that decade, Albania boasted the fastest-growing economy on the continent, but, as one of Europe’s poorest countries, it was still considered less developed.

Albania’s economic transition stumbled in 1997 when individual investors, constituting perhaps one-third of the country’s population, fell prey to a pyramid finance scheme that devastated the national economy and led to weeks of anarchy. A UN-sponsored multinational force was called to restore order. This chaos, compounded by the Kosovo conflict at the end of the decade, led to fractious political polarization that slowed the development of the Albanian economy for several years. Still, economic reform continued, and, at the beginning of the 21st century, Albania was recording modest annual growth in gross domestic product (GDP). Remittances from Albanians working abroad account for a significant amount of revenue. Although more than four-fifths of the economy has been privatized since the 1990s, the transformation process has been slow and uneven.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
The former communist government allocated substantial resources to the development of agriculture. Large-scale programs of land reclamation, soil improvement, and irrigation, as well as increased use of fertilizers, all contributed to a significant expansion of agricultural production. Despite these advances, agricultural production continued to be hindered by the persistence of traditional farming methods and low mechanization, which required a relatively high number of farmworkers. Measures intended to encourage the growth of food processing and agriculture were hampered by chronic shortages of basic foods, a failing infrastructure, a lack of raw materials, a shortage of skilled workers and managers, low productivity, and poor labour discipline. However, agriculture has registered annual growth during the postcommunist period.

About half of the economically active population is employed in agriculture, which contributes about one-fifth of Albania’s GDP. Only one-fourth of the total land area is arable, yet the country meets nearly all its food needs from domestic production. The main crops are wheat, corn (maize), sugar beets, and watermelons. Apples, plums, grapes, walnuts, and chestnuts are also grown. Citrus fruits are cultivated on the southern coast, as are figs and olives wherever there is sufficient irrigation. Major livestock are sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs.

Forests cover about one-third of Albania. The country has lost much of its forest area, however, due to clearance for agriculture, pasture, and fuel wood, which occurred mainly in the early 1990s. In the mid-1990s the Albanian government joined with Italy and the World Bank to implement a forestry project, which included the strengthening of Albania’s environmental institutions and the introduction of sustainable forestry methods.

With access to both the Adriatic and Ionian seas, the Albanian fishing industry has great potential; however, due to a lack of professional fishermen and the use of antiquated equipment, it has not been fully developed. The catch in the Ionian Sea includes carp, trout, sea bream, mussels, and crustaceans. The country’s main fishing ports are at Sarandë, Vlorë, Shëngjin, and Durrës, the last of which is the country’s largest and most important. Port facilities have also been developed on inland lakes. The government has attempted to ban fishing of the letnica trout (known as koran in Albania), an endangered pink-meat fish found in Lake Ohrid. Family-run trout farms have increased in importance, as have shrimp farms and hatcheries. Anchovies imported from other Mediterranean countries are canned for export.

Resources and power
For a small country, Albania is endowed with considerable resources. The southwestern part of the country is rich in petroleum and natural gas. The northeastern and central mountain regions have substantial reserves of metallic mineral deposits, including chromium, copper, and iron-nickel. Deposits of lignite (soft coal) are found near Tirana, and natural asphalt is mined near Selenicë, by the southwest coast. In the 1980s Albania was a world leader in chromium production, but output fell precipitously in the early 1990s during the political transition from communism. Despite increased output by the mid-1990s, mining in all sectors fell again by the century’s end because of the poor recovery methods, obsolete machinery and equipment, lack of technical expertise, and poor organization that have characterized Albania’s efforts to exploit its resources.

The country is also rich with rivers and streams that have significant hydroelectric potential. These were exploited quite effectively at the end of the communist era, making the country an energy exporter. A number of huge hydroelectric power plants were built, mainly on the Drin River, and more than half of the country’s arable land was irrigated, largely from the artificial reservoirs created upstream of the dams. In the postcommunist period, though, energy exports fell, and internally Albania suffered from inadequate electrical service to large areas of the country. Chronic energy shortages continued into the 21st century.

Manufacturing
The former communist government’s policy of rapid industrialization, aimed at making the country as self-sufficient as possible, led to the creation of a relatively modern multibranched industry. Former strengths, however, such as the engineering and chemical industries, have fallen into decline. Manufacturing, together with mining, now generates only about one-tenth of national income and employs only a small percentage of the labour force. Leading manufactures are food and beverages, building materials, petroleum, textiles, and cement. Construction accounts for about one-eighth of Albania’s GDP. The economy has become increasingly service-oriented, yet it is often unable to meet the population’s demands for various consumer goods.

Finance
The national currency of Albania is the lek, which has been administered by the Bank of Albania since 1992. Prior to that time, numerous currencies had circulated through Albania because of its history of foreign occupation. Greece, Germany, and Turkey are Albania’s biggest foreign investors, providing about three-fourths of external investment in the 21st century. There is a stock exchange in Tirana.

Trade
Albania had a growing trade deficit in the early years of the 21st century. Its major trading partners include Italy, Greece, Turkey, Germany, and China. It exports textiles, footwear, and base metals. The principal imports are food products, machinery and equipment, spare parts, textiles, and minerals and metals.

Services
The service sector contributes about two-fifths of the country’s GDP and employs about one-fifth of the economically active population. Albania’s tourism sector was virtually nonexistent before 1992, and it remained relatively underdeveloped at the turn of the 21st century compared with the rest of the region, mainly due to poor infrastructure and political instability. Nevertheless, major restorations of architectural and cultural monuments and the construction of hotels and other tourist-oriented facilities along the coastline started to attract large numbers of visitors in the early 2000s. The 290-mile (470-km) coastline along the Adriatic is well known for its splendid beaches. Albania also has many archaeological treasures. A number of excavations in the late 20th and early 21st century have uncovered ruins and artifacts from antiquity. One of these archaeological sites is Butrint—at one time a Greek colony, a Roman city, and a Byzantine port—which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1992 and a national park in 2000.

Labour and taxation
Unemployment in Albania is widespread, and about one-third of the population lives in poverty. Since the early 1990s, many younger Albanians have left the country to find work. The percentage of women in the workforce dropped drastically in the 1990s (from about three-fourths in 1989 to slightly less than half by the mid-2000s). While women have made gains professionally, economic problems and structural changes have eradicated many of their former jobs, leaving them to resort to working at domestic chores or on the family farm. The first independent labour unions and a national labour federation were formed in Albania in 1991. In 2008 Albania adopted a flat tax for both individuals and corporations, which replaced its progressive tax system.

Transportation and telecommunications
Albania built its first railroad in 1947, and during the next four decades Tirana was linked by rail to other major industrial centres in the country. The road network has been extended even to remote mountain villages, but surface quality can be poor. The leading port is Durrës, on the Adriatic Sea. The main air hub is in Tirana.

Most of the telecommunications sector in Albania was privatized in the early 21st century, and from the early 1990s to the early 2000s the number of mobile telephone users increased significantly. However, the country still has one of the lowest user-penetration rates for fixed-line telephones and Internet usage in all of Europe. Computer usage and Internet service are still virtually nonexistent in rural areas.

Government and society
Constitutional framework
The constitution of the Republic of Albania was promulgated on Nov. 28, 1998. It replaced an interim document from 1991 that had first sanctioned a multiparty political system and officially guaranteed Albanian citizens the freedoms of speech, religion, press, and assembly.

Albania is a parliamentary democracy, with 140 deputies elected to four-year terms in the unicameral People’s Assembly. Of those deputies, 100 are elected by direct suffrage, while the remainder are elected by proportional representation. The head of the government, the prime minister, is chosen from the leading party in parliament and selects the Council of Ministers (cabinet). The president, who serves as the head of state, is elected by the People’s Assembly for a five-year term and can serve a limit of two consecutive terms.

Local government
The country is divided into qark (counties), which are further divided into rrethe (districts). Beneath the districts in the administrative hierarchy are komuna (communes) and bashkia (municipalities). The counties are governed by councils, whose members are either representatives of the municipalities and communes from within the county or are chosen by the council. The cabinet appoints a prefect as its representative for each county. Government at the district and lower levels operates through local councils elected by direct vote for three-year terms.

Justice and security
Albania has a Constitutional Court, a Supreme Court, which is the highest court of appeals, and numerous appeal and district courts. The Constitutional Court justices are appointed by the People’s Assembly to serve one nine-year term. The Supreme Court has 11 members, each of whom is appointed by the president with the consent of the People’s Assembly for a nine-year term. Albania has an army and a navy; Albanians age 19 and older are eligible to serve in the country’s volunteer military forces.

Political process
Suffrage is universal for citizens age 18 and older. In June 1991 the Albanian Party of Labour, at one time described as the “sole leading political force of the state and society,” changed its name to the Albanian Socialist Party (ASP). It had ruled Albania since 1944, when it was first known as the Albanian Communist Party. By the mid-1990s the revamped ASP had distanced itself from its past and broadened its appeal among left-leaning voters to emerge as the governing party at the turn of the 21st century.

The Democratic Party, a centre-right group that made its debut as the first opposition party in Albania, scored a series of election successes in the early 1990s, but it bore the brunt of the blame for the 1997 economic collapse and fell into opposition. Other political parties of note in the early 21st century were the Social Democratic Party of Albania, the Union for Human Rights Party, and the Albanian Republican Party. There are also several agrarian, ecological, and socialist parties.

Health and welfare
Albania has a relatively well-developed health care system. The majority of services are provided by the state, though private practice was revived in the early 1990s. At the turn of the 21st century, physicians in Albania had more than twice as many patients as the average European doctor. Nevertheless, there has been a considerable reduction in the incidence of most infectious diseases (including malaria and syphilis, which had been especially widespread), and life expectancy for both men and women in Albania is slightly above the European average, at about 75 and 80 years, respectively. Despite the real improvements in health care, Albania still has a high infant mortality rate—largely a result of poor nutrition and the difficulty of obtaining medical treatment in many rural areas.

Education
The government has devoted considerable resources to education. Schooling is compulsory between ages 7 and 15. Education at the primary and secondary levels is free, and higher-education fees are based on family income. The University of Tirana (1957) is the country’s major institution of higher education. Tirana also has an agricultural and polytechnic university, along with an impressive network of professional and vocational schools. More than nine-tenths of the population age 15 and older is literate.

Cultural life
Cultural milieu
Cultural development in Albania was handicapped by more than four decades of communist rule. The government imposed strict censorship on the press, publications, and the performing arts. The succeeding governments have made a conscious effort to encourage and preserve the country’s rich folklife. Albania is known for its traditions of hospitality, which are based on the kanun (“code”), a set of unwritten laws devised in the 15th century by Prince Lekë Dukagjin, an Albanian feudal lord. The kanun governs all social relations, including those involving marriage, death, family, and religion. Some Albanians still follow its customary laws, including the right to avenge a killing; gjakmarrje (“blood feuds”) were known to occur in parts of northern Albania into the 21st century.

Daily life and social customs
In addition to traditional religious holidays, pagan holidays and folklore play a role in Albanian life. Agricultural fairs and religious festivals occur throughout the year and often include competitions that highlight highly skilled sports, which are occasionally contested in the national stadium in Tirana. Dita e Verës (Spring Day) is celebrated in mid-March in Elbasan. Folkloric festivals take place in towns across the country; one of the largest is the National Festival of Folklore held in Gjirokastër, a historic town that was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2005. Albania’s independence is celebrated throughout the country on November 28.

Much of Albania’s cuisine consists of meat and seafood. Among the most popular dishes are roasts, biftek (beef loin), qebaps (kabobs), and qoftë (meatballs). Fergësë Tirana, a hot dish of meat, peppers, eggs, and tomatoes, is a specialty of Tirana. In southern Albania, kukurec (sheep intestines broiled on a spit) is a common entree. Carp and the revered but rare koran (trout) are the preferred food fish throughout the country. Oshaf, a pudding made from figs and sheep’s milk, is a common dessert. The traditional Albanian drink is raki, a local brandy distilled from grapes that is often imbibed before a meal.

The arts
Albania’s traditional arts are rich and varied. They include fine embroidery and lace making, woodworking, and furniture making. Albanians enjoy music and storytelling, especially savouring the epics recounted by traditional singers. These singers often memorize verses hundreds and even thousands of lines long that celebrate the deeds of ancient heroes. Their tradition, however, seems to be in danger of extinction, for few young Albanians have elected to take up this ancient Balkan art form.

Albanian folk music is national in character but has Turkish and Persian influences. Albanian iso-polyphony, derived from Byzantine church music, is a form of group singing that is performed primarily by men. Albanian iso-polyphony was listed by UNESCO in 2005 as an outstanding example of the world’s intangible cultural heritage. Revived in the early 21st century, this folk tradition is still practiced at weddings, festivals, and other social events. Common folk instruments used in Albania include the çifteli (a long-necked two-stringed mandolin) and the gërnetë (a type of clarinet).

Albania boasts a long literary tradition. The country’s best-known contemporary writer is novelist and poet Ismail Kadare, whose work has been translated into some 30 languages. Notable early 20th-century poets include Gjergj Fishta (1871–1940), Ndre Mjeda (1866–1937), and Asdren (Alexander Stavre Drenova; 1872–1947), the last of whom wrote the lyrics for Albania’s national anthem. Fan S. Noli (1882–1965), an Orthodox bishop who served briefly as prime minister, is remembered for his artful turn-of-the-20th-century translations of some of the world’s classic works of drama and poetry. (See also Albanian literature.)

Cultural institutions
Tirana is the home of a number of cultural institutions, including the National Library, the National Theatre, the Opera and Ballet Theatre, the National Museum of History, and the National Museum. There are also numerous city orchestras throughout the country. Skanderbeg’s citadel at Krujë has been rebuilt and now houses a museum.

Sports and recreation
The traditional sporting life of Albanians has been based on pastoralism and warfare (archery, wrestling, and horse racing have all enjoyed prominence). Football (soccer) is modern-day Albania’s preferred sport; the country has a number of professional teams, and most cities and towns boast local amateur leagues. Other popular sports include tae kwon do, volleyball, swimming, and weightlifting. Chess is a common pastime. Albania made its debut at the 1972 Olympic Summer Games in Munich but did not return to Olympic competition until the 1992 Summer Games in Barcelona.

Media and publishing
During more than four decades of communist rule, the government imposed strict censorship on the press, which was not eased until 1991. Widely circulated newspapers are Zëri i Popullit (“Voice of the People”), the organ of the Albanian Socialist Party; Rilindja Demokratike (“Democratic Revival”), published by the Democratic Party; and Republika (“Republic”), the organ of the Albanian Republican Party. The Albanian Telegraph Agency is the official news source for the country. The state-controlled National Council of Radio and Television oversees licensing. Privately owned radio and television stations have increased since the 1990s.

Elez Biberaj
Peter R. Prifti

History
Antiquity
The Illyrians
The origins of the Albanian people are not definitely known, but data drawn from history and from linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological studies have led to the conclusion that Albanians are the direct descendants of the ancient Illyrians. Similarly, the Albanian language derives from the language of the Illyrians, the transition from Illyrian to Albanian apparently occurring between the 4th and 6th centuries ce. Some scholars, however, dispute such theses, arguing that Illyrians were not autochthonous to Albania and that Albanian derives from a dialect of the now-extinct Thracian language.

Illyrian culture is believed to have evolved from the Stone Age and to have manifested itself in the territory of Albania toward the beginning of the Bronze Age, about 2000 bce. The Illyrians were not a uniform body of people but a conglomeration of many tribes that inhabited the western part of the Balkans, from what is now Slovenia in the northwest to (and including) the region of Epirus, which extends about halfway down the mainland of modern Greece. In general, Illyrians in the highlands of Albania were more isolated than those in the lowlands, and their culture evolved more slowly—a distinction that persisted throughout Albania’s history.

Authors of antiquity relate that the Illyrians were a sociable and hospitable people, renowned for their daring and bravery at war. Illyrian women were fairly equal in status to the men, even to the point of becoming heads of tribal federations. In matters of religion, Illyrians were pagans who believed in an afterlife and buried their dead along with arms and various articles intended for personal use.

The land of Illyria was rich in minerals—iron, copper, gold, silver—and Illyrians became skillful in the mining and processing of metals. They were highly skilled boatbuilders and sailors as well; indeed, their light, swift galleys known as liburnae were of such superior design that the Romans incorporated them into their own fleet as a type of warship called the Liburnian.

The Greeks
From the 8th to the 6th century bce the Greeks founded a string of colonies on Illyrian soil, two of the most prominent of which were Epidamnus (modern Durrës) and Apollonia (near modern Vlorë). The presence of Greek colonies on their soil brought the Illyrians into contact with a more advanced civilization, which helped them to develop their own culture while they in turn influenced the economic and political life of the colonies. In the 3rd century bce the colonies began to decline and eventually perished.

Roughly parallel with the rise of Greek colonies, Illyrian tribes began to evolve politically from relatively small and simple entities into larger and more complex ones. At first they formed temporary alliances with one another for defensive or offensive purposes, then federations and, still later, kingdoms. The most important of these kingdoms, which flourished from the 5th to the 2nd century bce, were those of the Enkalayes, the Taulantes, the Epirotes, and the Ardianes.

After warring for the better part of the 4th century bce against the expansionist Macedonian state of Philip II and Alexander the Great, the Illyrians faced a greater threat from the growing power of the Romans. Seeing Illyrian territory as a bridgehead for conquests east of the Adriatic, Rome in 229 bce attacked and defeated the Illyrians, led by Queen Teuta, and by 168 bce established effective control over Illyria.

The Roman Empire
The Romans ruled Illyria—which now became the province of Illyricum—for about six centuries. Under Roman rule Illyrian society underwent great change, especially in its outward, material aspect. Art and culture flourished, particularly in Apollonia, whose school of philosophy became celebrated in antiquity. To a great extent, though, the Illyrians resisted assimilation into Roman culture. Illyrian culture survived, along with the Illyrian tongue, though many Latin words entered the language and later became a part of the Albanian language.

Christianity manifested itself in Illyria during Roman rule, about the middle of the 1st century ce. At first the new religion had to compete with Middle Eastern cults—among them that of Mithra, Persian god of light—which had entered the land in the wake of Illyria’s growing interaction with eastern regions of the empire. For a long time it also had to compete with gods worshipped by Illyrian pagans. The steady growth of the Christian community in Dyrrhachium (the Roman name for Epidamnus) led to the creation there of a bishopric in ce 58. Later, episcopal seats were established in Apollonia, Buthrotum (modern Butrint), and Scodra (modern Shkodër).

By the time the empire began to decline, the Illyrians, profiting from a long tradition of martial habits and skills, had acquired great influence in the Roman military hierarchy. Indeed, several of them went on from there to become emperors. From the mid-3rd to the mid-4th century ce the reins of the empire were almost continuously in the hands of emperors of Illyrian origin: Gaius Decius, Claudius Gothicus, Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian, and Constantine the Great.

The Byzantine Empire
From Illyria to Albania
When the Roman Empire divided into East and West in 395, the territories of modern Albania became part of the Byzantine Empire. As in the Roman Empire, some Illyrians rose to positions of eminence in the new empire. Three of the emperors who shaped the early history of Byzantium (reigning from 491 to 565) were of Illyrian origin: Anastasius I, Justin I, and—the most celebrated of Byzantine emperors—Justinian I.

In the first decades under Byzantine rule (until 461), Illyria suffered the devastation of raids by Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths. Not long after these barbarian invaders swept through the Balkans, the Slavs appeared. Between the 6th and 8th centuries they settled in Illyrian territories and proceeded to assimilate Illyrian tribes in much of what is now Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia. The tribes of southern Illyria, however—including modern Albania—averted assimilation and preserved their native tongue.

In the course of several centuries, under the impact of Roman, Byzantine, and Slavic cultures, the tribes of southern Illyria underwent a transformation, and a transition occurred from the old Illyrian population to a new Albanian one. As a consequence, from the 8th to the 11th century, the name Illyria gradually gave way to the name, first mentioned in the 2nd century ce by the geographer Ptolemy of Alexandria, of the Albanoi tribe, which inhabited what is now central Albania. From a single tribe the name spread to include the rest of the country as Arbëri and, finally, Albania. The genesis of Albanian nationality apparently occurred at this time as the Albanian people became aware that they shared a common territory, name, language, and cultural heritage. (Scholars have not been able to determine the origin of Shqipëria, the Albanians’ own name for their land, which is believed to have supplanted the name Albania during the 16th and 17th centuries. It probably was derived from shqipe, or “eagle,” which, modified into shqipëria, became “the land of the eagle.”)

Long before that event, Christianity had become the established religion in Albania, supplanting pagan polytheism and eclipsing for the most part the humanistic world outlook and institutions inherited from the Greek and Roman civilizations. But, though the country was in the fold of Byzantium, Albanian Christians remained under the jurisdiction of the Roman pope until 732. In that year the iconoclast Byzantine emperor Leo III, angered by Albanian archbishops because they had supported Rome in the Iconoclastic Controversy, detached the Albanian church from the Roman pope and placed it under the patriarch of Constantinople. When the Christian church split in 1054 between the East and Rome, southern Albania retained its tie to Constantinople while northern Albania reverted to the jurisdiction of Rome. This split in the Albanian church marked the first significant religious fragmentation of the country.

Medieval culture
In the latter part of the Middle Ages, Albanian urban society reached a high point of development. Foreign commerce flourished to such an extent that leading Albanian merchants had their own agencies in Venice, Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Cro.), and Thessalonica (now Thessaloníki, Greece). The prosperity of the cities stimulated the development of education and the arts. Albanian, however, was not the language used in schools, churches, and official government transactions. Instead, Greek and Latin, which had the powerful support of the state and the church, were the official languages of culture and literature.

The new administrative system of the themes, or military provinces created by the Byzantine Empire, contributed to the eventual rise of feudalism in Albania, as peasant soldiers who served military lords became serfs on their landed estates. Among the leading families of the Albanian feudal nobility were the Thopias, Balshas, Shpatas, Muzakas, Aranitis, Dukagjins, and Kastriotis. The first three of these rose to become rulers of principalities that were practically independent of Byzantium.

The decline of Byzantium
Beginning in the 9th century, partly because of the weakness of the Byzantine Empire, Albania came under the domination, in whole or in part, of a succession of foreign powers: Bulgarians, Norman Crusaders, the Angevins of southern Italy, Serbs, and Venetians. The final occupation of the country in 1347 by the Serbs, led by Stefan Dušan, caused massive migrations of Albanians abroad, especially to Greece and the Aegean islands. By the mid-14th century, Byzantine rule had come to an end in Albania, after nearly 1,000 years.

A few decades later the country was confronted with a new threat, that of the Turks, who at this juncture were expanding their power in the Balkans. The Ottoman Turks invaded Albania in 1388 and completed the occupation of the country about four decades later (1430). But after 1443 an Albanian of military genius—Gjergj Kastrioti (1405–68), known as Skanderbeg—rallied the Albanian princes and succeeded in driving the occupiers out. For the next 25 years, operating out of his stronghold in the mountain town of Krujë, Skanderbeg frustrated every attempt by the Turks to regain Albania, which they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Italy and western Europe. His unequal fight against the mightiest power of the time won the esteem of Europe as well as some support in the form of money and military aid from Naples, the papacy, Venice, and Ragusa. After he died, Albanian resistance gradually collapsed, enabling the Turks to reoccupy the country by 1506.

Skanderbeg’s long struggle to keep Albania free became highly significant to the Albanian people, as it strengthened their solidarity, made them more conscious of their national identity, and served later as a great source of inspiration in their struggle for national unity, freedom, and independence.

The Ottoman Empire
The nature of Turkish rule
The Turks established their dominion over Albania just as the Renaissance began to unfold in Europe. Cut off from contact and exchanges with western Europe, Albania had no chance to participate in or benefit from the humanistic achievements of that era. Conquest also caused great suffering and vast destruction of the country’s economy, commerce, art, and culture. Moreover, to escape persecution by their conquerors, about one-fourth of the country’s population fled abroad to southern Italy, Sicily, and the Dalmatian coast.

Although the Turks ruled Albania for more than four centuries, they were unable to extend their authority throughout the country. In the highland regions, Turkish authorities exercised only a formal sovereignty, as the highlanders refused to pay taxes, serve in the army, or surrender their arms—although they did pay an annual tribute to Constantinople.

Time and again Albanians rose in rebellion against Ottoman occupation. In order to check the ravages of Albanian resistance—which was partly motivated by religious feelings, namely defense of the Christian faith—as well as to bring Albania spiritually closer to Turkey, the Ottomans initiated a systematic drive toward the end of the 16th century to Islamize the population. This drive continued through the following century, by the end of which two-thirds of the people had converted to Islam. A major reason Albanians became Muslims was to escape Turkish violence and exploitation, an instance of which was a crushing tax that Christians would have to pay if they refused to convert.

Islamization aggravated the religious fragmentation of Albanian society, which had first appeared in the Middle Ages and which was later used by Constantinople and Albania’s neighbours in attempts to divide and denationalize the Albanian people. Hence, leaders of the Albanian national movement in the 19th century used the rallying cry “The religion of Albanians is Albanianism” in order to overcome religious divisions and foster national unity.

The basis of Ottoman rule in Albania was a feudal military system of landed estates, called timars, which were awarded to military lords for loyalty and service to the empire. As Ottoman power began to decline in the 18th century, the central authority of the empire in Albania gave way to the local authority of autonomy-minded lords. The most successful of these lords were three generations of pashas of the Bushati family, who dominated most of northern Albania from 1757 to 1831, and Ali Paşa Tepelenë of Janina (now Ioánnina, Greece), a colourful despot who ruled over southern Albania and northern Greece from 1788 to 1822. These pashas created separate states within the Ottoman state until they were overthrown by the sultan.

After the fall of the pashas, in 1831 Turkey officially abolished the timar system. In the wake of its collapse, economic and social power passed from the feudal lords to private landowning beys and, in the northern highlands, to tribal chieftains called bajraktars, who presided over given territories with rigid patriarchal societies that were often torn by blood feuds. Peasants who were formerly serfs now worked on the estates of the beys as tenant farmers.

Ottoman rule in Albania remained backward and oppressive to the end. In these circumstances, many Albanians went abroad in search of careers and advancement within the empire, and an unusually large number of them (in proportion to Albania’s population) rose to positions of prominence as government and military leaders. More than two dozen grand viziers (similar to prime ministers) of Turkey were of Albanian origin.

Albanian nationalism
By the mid-19th century Turkey was in the throes of the “Eastern Question,” as the peoples of the Balkans, including Albanians, sought to realize their national aspirations. To defend and promote their national interests, Albanians met in Prizren, a town in Kosovo, in 1878 and founded the Albanian League. The league had two main goals, one political and the other cultural. First, it strove (unsuccessfully) to unify all Albanian territories—at the time divided among the four vilāyets, or provinces, of Kosovo, Shkodër, Monastir, and Janina—into one autonomous state within the framework of the Ottoman Empire. Second, it spearheaded a movement to develop Albanian language, literature, education, and culture. In 1908, in line with the second program, Albanian leaders met in the town of Monastir (now Bitola, Maced.) and adopted a national alphabet. Based mostly on the Latin script, this supplanted several other alphabets, including Arabic and Greek, that were in use until then.

The Albanian League was suppressed by the Turks in 1881, in part because they were alarmed by its strong nationalistic orientation. By then, however, the league had become a powerful symbol of Albania’s national awakening, and its ideas and objectives fueled the drive that culminated later in national independence.

When the Young Turks, who seized power in Istanbul in 1908, ignored their commitments to Albanians to institute democratic reforms and to grant autonomy, Albanians embarked on an armed struggle, which at the end of three years (1910–12) forced the Turks to agree, in effect, to grant their demands. Alarmed at the prospect of Albanian autonomy, Albania’s Balkan neighbours, who had already made plans to partition the region, declared war on Turkey in October 1912, and Greek, Serbian, and Montenegrin armies advanced into Albanian territories. To prevent the annihilation of the country, Albanian national delegates met at a congress in Vlorë. They were led by Ismail Qemal, an Albanian who had held several high positions in the Ottoman government. On Nov. 28, 1912, the congress issued the Vlorë proclamation, which declared Albania’s independence.

Independent Albania
Creating the new state
Shortly after the defeat of Turkey by the Balkan allies, a conference of ambassadors of the great powers (Britain, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and Italy) convened in London in December 1912 to settle the outstanding issues raised by the conflict. With support given to the Albanians by Austria-Hungary and Italy, the conference agreed to create an independent state of Albania. But, in drawing the borders of the new state, under strong pressure from Albania’s neighbours, the great powers largely ignored demographic realities and ceded the vast region of Kosovo to Serbia, while in the south Greece was given the greater part of Çamëria, a part of the old region of Epirus centred on the Thíamis River. Many observers doubted whether the new state would be viable with about one-half of Albanian lands and population left outside its borders, especially since these lands were the most productive in food grains and livestock. On the other hand, a small community of about 35,000 ethnic Greeks was included within Albania’s borders. (However, Greece, which counted all Albanians of the Orthodox faith—20 percent of the population—as Greeks, claimed that the number of ethnic Greeks was considerably larger.) Thereafter, Kosovo and the Greek minority remained troublesome issues in Albanian-Greek and Albanian-Yugoslav relations.

The great powers also appointed a German prince, Wilhelm zu Wied, as ruler of Albania. Wilhelm arrived in Albania in March 1914, but his unfamiliarity with Albania and its problems, compounded by complications arising from the outbreak of World War I, led him to depart from Albania six months later. The war plunged the country into a new crisis, as the armies of Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia invaded and occupied it. Left without any political leadership or authority, the country was in chaos, and its very fate hung in the balance. At the Paris Peace Conference after the war, the extinction of Albania was averted largely through the efforts of U.S. Pres. Woodrow Wilson, who vetoed a plan by Britain, France, and Italy to partition Albania among its neighbours.

A national congress, held in Lushnje in January 1920, laid the foundations of a new government. In December of that year Albania, this time with the help of Britain, gained admission to the League of Nations, thereby winning for the first time international recognition as a sovereign nation and state.

Bishop Noli and King Zog
At the start of the 1920s, Albanian society was divided by two apparently irreconcilable forces. One, made up mainly of deeply conservative landowning beys and tribal bajraktars who were tied to the Ottoman and feudal past, was led by Ahmed Bey Zogu, a chieftain from the Mat region of north-central Albania. The other, made up of liberal intellectuals, democratic politicians, and progressive merchants who looked to the West and wanted to modernize and Westernize Albania, was led by Fan S. Noli, an American-educated bishop of the Orthodox church. In the event, this East-West polarization of Albanian society was of such magnitude and complexity that neither leader could master and overcome it.

In the unusually open and free political, social, and cultural climate that prevailed in Albania between 1920 and 1924, the liberal forces gathered strength, and by mid-1924 a popular revolt forced Zogu to flee to Yugoslavia. Installed as prime minister of the new government in June 1924, Noli set out to build a Western-style democracy in Albania, and toward that end he announced a radical program of land reform and modernization. But his vacillation in carrying out the program, coupled with a depleted state treasury and a failure to obtain international recognition for his revolutionary, left-of-centre government, quickly alienated most of Noli’s supporters, and six months later he was overthrown by an armed assault led by Zogu and aided by Yugoslavia.

Zogu began his 14-year reign in Albania—first as president (1925–28), then as King Zog I (1928–39)—in a country rife with political and social instability. Greatly in need of foreign aid and credit in order to stabilize the country, Zog signed a number of accords with Italy. These provided transitory financial relief to Albania, but they effected no basic change in its economy, especially under the conditions of the worldwide Great Depression of the 1930s.

The social base of Zog’s power was a coalition of southern beys and northern bajraktars. With the support of this coalition—plus a vast Ottoman-style bureaucracy, an efficient police force, and Italian money—King Zog brought a large measure of stability to Albania. He extended the authority of the government to the highlands, reduced the brigandage that had formerly plagued the country, laid the foundations of a modern educational system, and took a few steps to Westernize Albanian social life.

On balance, however, his achievements were outweighed by his failures. Although formally a constitutional monarch, in reality Zog was a dictator, and Albania under him experienced the fragile stability of a dictatorship. Zog failed to resolve Albania’s fundamental problem, that of land reform, leaving the peasantry as impoverished as before. In order to stave off famine, the government had to import food grains annually, but, even so, thousands of people migrated abroad in search of a better life. Moreover, Zog denied democratic freedoms to Albanians and created conditions that spawned periodic revolts against his regime, alienated most of the educated class, fomented labour unrest, and led to the formation of the first communist groups in the country. Italy, on the other hand, viewed Albania primarily as a bridgehead for military expansion into the Balkans. On April 7, 1939, Italy invaded and shortly after occupied the country. King Zog fled to Greece.

World War II
In October 1940 Italian forces used Albania as a military base to invade Greece, but they were quickly thrown back into Albania. After Nazi Germany defeated Greece and Yugoslavia in 1941, the regions of Kosovo and Çamëria were joined to Albania, thus creating an ethnically united Albanian state. The new state lasted until November 1944, when the Germans—who had replaced the Italian occupation forces following Italy’s surrender in 1943—withdrew from Albania. Kosovo was then reincorporated into the Serbian portion of Yugoslavia, and Çamëria into Greece.

Meanwhile, the various communist groups that had germinated in Zog’s Albania merged in November 1941 to form the Albanian Communist Party and began to fight the occupiers as a unified resistance force. After a successful struggle against the fascists and two other resistance groups that contended for power with them—the National Front (Balli Kombëtar) and the pro-Zog Legality Party (Legaliteti)—the communists seized control of the country on Nov. 29, 1944. Enver Hoxha, a college instructor who had led the resistance struggle of communist forces, became the leader of Albania by virtue of his post as secretary-general of the party. Albania, which before the war had been under the personal dictatorship of King Zog, now fell under the collective dictatorship of the Albanian Communist Party. The country became officially in 1946 the People’s Republic of Albania and in 1976 the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania.

Socialist Albania
The Stalinist state
The new rulers inherited an Albania plagued by a host of ills: pervasive poverty, overwhelming illiteracy, gjakmarrje (“blood feuds”), epidemics of disease, and gross subjugation of women. In an attempt to eradicate these ills, the communists drafted a radical modernization program intended to bring social and economic liberation to Albania, thus completing the political liberation won in 1912. The government’s first major act to “build socialism” was swift, uncompromising agrarian reform, which broke up the large landed estates of the southern beys and distributed the parcels to landless and other peasants. This destroyed the powerful class of the beys. The government also moved to nationalize industry, banks, and all commercial and foreign properties. Shortly after the agrarian reform, the Albanian government started to collectivize agriculture, completing the job in 1967. As a result, peasants lost title to their land. In addition, the Hoxha leadership extended the new socialist order to the more rugged and isolated northern highlands, in turn bringing down the age-old institution of the blood feud and the patriarchal structure of the family and clans and thus destroying the semifeudal class of bajraktars. The traditional role of women—namely, confinement to the home and farm—changed radically as they gained legal equality with men and became active participants in all areas of society.

In order to obtain the economic aid needed for modernization, as well as the political and military support to enhance its security, Albania turned to the communist world: Yugoslavia (1944–48), the Soviet Union (1948–61), and China (1961–78). Economically, Albania benefited greatly from these alliances: with hundreds of millions of dollars in aid and credits and with the assistance of a large number of technicians and specialists sent by its allies, Albania was able to build the foundations of a modern industry and to introduce mechanization into agriculture. As a result, for the first time in modern history, the Albanian populace began to emerge from age-old backwardness and, for a while, enjoyed a higher standard of living.

Politically, Hoxha was disillusioned with his communist allies and patrons and broke with each one, charging that they had abandoned Marxism-Leninism and the cause of the proletariat for the sake of rapprochement with the capitalist West. Alienated from both East and West, Albania adopted a “go-it-alone” policy and became notorious as an isolated bastion of Stalinism.

Hoxha’s program for modernization aimed at transforming Albania from a backward agrarian country into a modern industrial society, and, indeed, within four decades Albania had made respectable—in some cases historic—strides in the development of industry, agriculture, education, the arts, and culture. A notable achievement was the drainage of coastal swamplands—previously breeding grounds for malarial mosquitoes—and the reclamation of land for agricultural and industrial uses. Also symbolic of the change was a historic language reform that fused elements of the Geg and Tosk dialects into a unified literary language.

Political oppression, however, offset gains made on the material and cultural planes. Contrary to provisions in the constitution, during Hoxha’s reign Albania was in effect ruled by the Directorate of State Security, known as the Sigurimi. To eliminate dissent, the government periodically resorted to purges, in which opponents were subjected to public criticism, dismissed from their jobs, imprisoned in forced-labour camps, or executed. Travel abroad was forbidden to all but those on official business. In 1967 the religious establishment, which party leaders and other atheistic Albanians viewed as a backward medieval institution that hampered national unity and progress, was officially banned, and all Christian and Muslim houses of worship were closed.

Collapse of communism
After Hoxha’s death in 1985, his handpicked successor, Ramiz Alia, sought to preserve the communist system while introducing gradual reforms in order to revive the economy, which had been declining steadily since the cessation of aid from former communist allies. To this end he legalized some investment in Albania by foreign firms and expanded diplomatic relations with the West. But, with the fall of communism in eastern Europe in 1989, various segments of Albanian society became politically active and began to agitate against the government. The most alienated groups were the intellectuals and the working class—traditionally the vanguard of a communist movement or organization—as well as Albania’s youth, which had been frustrated by years of confinement and restrictions. In response to these pressures, Alia granted Albanian citizens the right to travel abroad, curtailed the powers of the Sigurimi, restored religious freedom, and adopted some free-market measures for the economy. In December 1990 Alia endorsed the creation of independent political parties, thus signaling an end to the communists’ official monopoly of power.

With each concession to the opposition, the state’s absolute control over Albanian society weakened. Continuing economic, social, and political instability led to the fall of several governments, and in March 1992 a decisive electoral victory was won by the anticommunist opposition, led by the Democratic Party. Alia resigned as president and was succeeded by Sali Berisha, the first democratic leader of Albania since Bishop Noli.

Democratic Albania
Albania’s progress toward democratic reform enabled it to gain membership in the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (now the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe), formally bringing to an end its isolation. Efforts to establish a free-market economy caused severe dislocations, but they also opened the road for Albania to obtain large amounts of aid from developed countries. Albania thus began integrating its politics and institutions with the West, which Albanians have historically viewed as their cultural and geographic home.

In 1997 the economy collapsed when many Albanians lost their savings in various pyramid investment schemes. United Nations peacekeeping troops were brought in to quell the resulting civil disorder, and the Albanian Socialist Party won by a landslide in legislative elections later that year (and maintained power in elections in 2001 at the head of the Alliance for the State coalition). In 1999 some 450,000 ethnic Albanians sought refuge in Albania from the war in the Kosovo region of Serbia. Ethnic turmoil also strained Albania’s relations with Macedonia in 2001 when that country’s large Albanian minority staged an armed rebellion. Tensions had cooled by 2003, and the two countries, along with Croatia, agreed to join together to fight organized crime.

Power shifted back to the Democratic Party following the 2005 legislative elections, and former president Berisha was named prime minister. He worked to implement economic and social changes in order to gain membership in the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), including taking measures to lower Albania’s high rates of crime and deterring corruption and drug trafficking. In 2008 Albania was formally invited to join NATO, and on April 1, 2009, it became an official member of the alliance. Berisha remained prime minister following legislative elections that June, when the Democrats defeated the Socialists by a slim margin. The official results came almost one month after the polls had closed, because the Socialists had demanded a recount. Some international observers also stated that electoral irregularities had occurred.

Peter R. Prifti